18595-misunderstood-and-mistreated-students-of-color-in-special-education.pdf

Voices of Reform: Educational Research to

Inform and Reform

Volume 3 ● Issue 2 ● Article 3

December 2020

Misunderstood and Mistreated: Students of

Color in Special Education

Hani Morgan

University of Southern Mississippi

Follow this and additional works at: http://www.voicesofreform.com

Recommended Citation

Morgan, H. (2020). Misunderstood and mistreated: Students of color in special education. Voices of Reform, 3(2),

71-81. Retrieved from https://www.voicesofreform.com/article/18595-misunderstood-and-mistreated-students-of-

color-in-special-education doi: 10.32623/3.100005

http://dx.doi.org/10.32623.3.10005

Revisions

Submission date: February 17

, 2020

Revision: April 28

, 2020

Acceptance: May 11

, 2020

Publication date: December 29

, 2020

Morgan: Misunderstood and mistreated: Students of color in special education

Misunderstood and mistreated:

Students of color in special education

Hani Morgan

School of Education

University of Southern Mississippi, United States

[email protected]u

Abstract

The disproportionate representation of students of color in special education is a serious concern

that has lasted for forty years. Research suggests that students of color are too often not identified

accurately for special education and that the programs they are placed in are frequently poor in

quality. This trend contributes to a less-than-optimal learning environment that lowers their

chances for future success. Some of the factors that may contribute to this problem include poverty

and inaccurate teacher perceptions. To reduce this problem, teachers can be trained to be culturally

responsive and the public-school system can be improved so that students from low-income

households receive better services.

Keywords

special education, poverty, equity, social justice in education

Misunderstood and Mistreated: Students of Color in Special Education

The disproportionate representation of students of color in special education has been a concern

about the education of students from low-income families for many years. Low-income students

are more often identified in subjective disability categories, such as emotional disability and

intellectual disability, and more frequently placed in separate classrooms. Further, after being

identified in this manner, these pupils tend to be placed in classrooms where academic outcomes

are worse, expectations for success are lower, and the stigma associated with special education is

higher (Schifter, Grindal, Schwartz, & Hehir, 2019). They are also frequently placed in classrooms

with teachers who have less expertise in math, English, and science. These circumstances have

raised concerns about systemic racial bias because low-income children are more likely to be

students of color (Tatter, 2019).

Additionally, research shows that when students of color need special services in certain areas,

they often do not receive them. For example, Morgan and Farkas (2018) found that 74% of White

Morgan: Misunderstood and mistreated: Students of color in special education

fourth-grade children with reading difficulties were receiving special education services but that

only 44% of Black children and 43% of Hispanic children were receiving them.

Concerns About Special Education Placement

Although placement in special education is designed to help students, it can reduce their

employment options and opportunities for higher education (Bal, Sullivan, & Harper, 2014). The

outcomes associated with placement in ineffective special education programs also include

exposure to an environment that leads to more severe and frequent disciplinary action (Camera,

2017) that may result in fewer learning opportunities (Cooc, 2017). On the other hand, failing to

provide special services to students who need them prevents pupils who have historically been

underserved from gaining access to the programs that will help them succeed academically

(Morgan & Farkas, 2018).

Although placing students in special education has been found to benefit students with mild

disabilities, it is frequently viewed as ineffective for many pupils, contributing to consequences

that outweigh the advantages of receiving additional services (Dever, Raines, Dowdy, & Hostutler,

2016). Since students of color already experience inequalities in schools at a high rate, the negative

outcomes associated with their placement in special education are serious. These outcomes include

racial segregation, stigmatization, and group misrepresentation (Skiba, Artiles, Kozleski, Losen,

& Harry, 2016).

Unfortunately, certain groups of students are placed in specific special education categories at

alarmingly high rates. For instance, the U.S. Department of Education (2015) indicated that

African American students ages 6 through 21 were over two times more likely to receive services

for emotional disturbance and intellectual disabilities than were students from all other

racial/ethnic groups. Ford and Russo (2016) indicated that Black students are over-referred and

over-identified in subjective special education placement areas more than any other group.

Definition of Disproportionate Identification

Disproportionate identification generally refers to group differences in the rate at which one group

is assigned to a category at a higher or lower rate than that of students from other groups (Sullivan

& Osher, 2019). Conversely, proportionate representation occurs when students of one

race/ethnicity are assigned to a category at the same rate as students from other groups are.

Overrepresentation takes place when a group is represented at a higher rate in a category than the

rate at which other populations are represented, and underrepresentation occurs when a group is

represented at a lower rate (Robinson & Norton, 2019).

One of the methods for determining if a given group is overrepresented is the composition index.

This method involves comparing the ratio of pupils from a particular demographic group identified

for special education with the ratio of pupils of the same group within all of the student population

(Counts, Katsiyannis, & Whitford, 2018).

Morgan: Misunderstood and mistreated: Students of color in special education

Background

Research on disproportionate group differences in special education identification has to a great

extent focused on the overrepresentation of Black students. Various studies have investigated

differences in identification of intellectual disability, emotional disturbance, and learning

disability. Although there is a lack of consensus about the reasons for disproportionality, most

scholars agree that disproportionate representation can be caused by misidentification (Sullivan &

Osher, 2019).

Previous reports have revealed that the persistent and substantial overrepresentation of Black

students in special education has lasted for forty years (Ford & Russo, 2016) and that the use of

biased methods of identifying these students likely contributes to this outcome (Bean, 2013). Other

minority groups, such as Native Americans, have been found to be overrepresented in special

education as well (Cooc, 2017; Dever et al., 2016). The overrepresentation of a particular group

can manifest itself in several ways:

• Culturally and linguistically diverse (CLD) students can be over-identified for special

education at the national, state, and district levels.

• CLD students can receive special education services at higher rates in more segregated or

restrictive programs.

• They can be overrepresented in specific special education categories, such as emotional

disturbance and intellectual disabilities.

• They can experience disciplinary actions, such as suspensions and expulsions, at higher

rates than other students.

Although the disproportionate representation of African American students in special education

was initially identified as a problem in the 1960s, the roots of this concern date back to a much

earlier period. Before the 1950s, the dominant view toward this group involved educating them

not for equal citizenship, but for lower ranked positions they would hold (Skiba et al., 2008).

Regrettably, even after the Brown vs. Board of Education (1954) decision, some educational

practices, such as placing students in special education and sorting them by ability, separated

minority students from others. In the 1960s and 1970s, court challenges occurred, contesting that

discriminatory educational practices that led to the racial isolation of minority students were a

violation of the Equal Protection Clause of the Constitution and Title VI of the Civil Rights Act

of 1964.

Although concerns about discriminatory practices led to research in the 1970s and 1980s, these

early studies did not reveal insights on the mechanisms that promote racial differences in the

identification of students in special education. In later years, research focused more on the

factors leading to this problem (Skiba et al., 2008).

Morgan: Misunderstood and mistreated: Students of color in special education

Factors Related to Disproportionality

Cooc (2017) discussed several research areas that focus on the factors contributing to the

disproportionate identification of certain groups in special education. The first is based on the

hypothesis that disproportionality occurs because certain groups of minority students are more

likely to experience adverse conditions as a result of living in poverty. These conditions lead to

health problems that affect learning and special education referrals.

The second area focuses on racial biases. For example, assessments might be culturally

inappropriate. In addition, teachers may have biased perceptions that influence them to refer more

students from one racial group in special education than those from another although students from

both groups display the same condition.

The third area emphasizes the sociohistorical context. Researchers focusing on this topic examine

whether school decisions reflect historical assumptions about race that disadvantage minority

students regarding disability decisions.

Poverty

Living in poverty is associated with conditions that make academic success difficult. For example,

low-income children suffer from vision impairment at twice the normal rate. They endure this

condition as a result of the poor prenatal development that occurs when low-income pregnant

mothers do not get adequate care and nutrition (Morgan, 2019). Unfortunately, Black, Hispanic,

and Native American students live in poverty at much higher rates than White families (Morgan,

2018a; Sauter, 2018).

Researchers have hypothesized that living in poverty contributes to the disproportionate rate of

students of color in special education since these students are more likely to be exposed to risk

factors that increase academic underachievement and behavioral problems. In addition to vision

impairment, low-income students suffer more from the effects of exposure to lead, high blood

pressure, and low birth weight (Morgan & Farkas, 2018).

Teacher Perception

One of the most important factors within the school system that can contribute to racial disparities

in referrals for special education is the teacher’s role in the process of identifying students. Indeed,

the identification of students for special education starts with a teacher’s belief concerning whether

or not a student has a disability (Cooc, 2017). Unfortunately, teachers sometimes hold biased views

toward students from cultural minority groups.

Although teachers of the same race as their students are more likely to be aware of the cultural

characteristics of their pupils, there is a lack of teachers of color in public schools (Morgan, 2019).

Scholars have therefore hypothesized that many students of color are perceived to have disorders

as a result of not understanding aspects of students’ cultures (Bean, 2013). For instance, Rudd

(2014) mentioned a study that revealed that teachers perceived students who displayed a walking

style more commonly used by Black adolescents as in more need of special education services.

Morgan: Misunderstood and mistreated: Students of color in special education

Other studies support the view that teachers hold biased perceptions toward students of color. One

of these involved a sample of 57 female teachers, most of whom were White. This research

explored how teachers would react to misbehavior. Although the researchers found that the

teachers, who represented all grade levels from across the country, did not respond stereotypically

after a student’s first infraction, they were more likely to stereotype Black students as

troublemakers after a second infraction (Weir, 2016).

Another study focused on the beliefs high school teachers held toward students’ academic potential

by investigating whether non-Black teachers had biased expectations of Black students.

Gershenson, Holt, and Papageorge (2016) found that non-Black teachers had significantly lower

expectations than Black teachers and that non-Black teachers were less likely to believe that Black

students would complete a four-year college degree. They concluded that their study provided

evidence for the need to hire a more diverse and representative teaching force.

Cherng’s (2017) study indicated that English teachers underestimate the academic abilities of

Black students and other students of color and that math teachers hold similar perceptions of these

students. His study revealed that teachers’ underestimation of students’ academic ability in the 10

grade is linked to lower 12

grade expectations. He concluded from his research that teacher

perceptions may be racially biased and that these biases are associated with lower student

expectations and achievement. His findings are consistent with the belief that low expectations are

harmful to students' self-conception and are associated with poorer academic outcomes.

Ouazad (2014) focused on teachers of younger students to explore if they assess same-race

students more favorably. The results of his study showed that teachers of students from

kindergarten to grade 5 assess same-race students more favorably and that the effects of this

treatment persist in later years. He also noted that the K-5 years were an important period in the

education of children since academic racial gaps occur rapidly during these years.

Another study involving the analysis of longitudinal data on all public-school students in North

Carolina showed that Black students benefit from having teachers of the same race. This research

indicated that students were less likely to drop out of high school and more likely to plan on going

to college when assigned to a Black teacher at least once in the third, fourth, or fifth grades. In

addition, the researchers mentioned that the dropout effect was greatest among Black boys who

experienced persistent poverty during their years in primary school. They also pointed out that

future research is needed to better understand how much of an impact Black teachers with higher

expectations may make. Their findings support implementing a policy that encourages assigning

Black male students to Black teachers to close achievement gaps (Gershenson, Hart, Lindsay, &

Papageorge, 2017).

Teacher perceptions are important because they may not only contribute to the disproportionate

identification of students of color in special education but also prevent students with learning

disabilities from getting the education they deserve after they are identified. These outcomes could

occur as a result of the lower expectations teachers may hold for the behavior and achievement of

students of color. Although special education placement can provide critical services that lead to

Morgan: Misunderstood and mistreated: Students of color in special education

academic success, it can also result in low teacher expectations that prevent students from

performing well in school (Schifter, Grindal, Schwartz, & Hehir, 2019).

Sociohistorical Context

In 1975, the Education for All Handicapped Children Act (EAHCA), now the Individuals with

Disabilities Education Act (IDEA), was enacted. This legislation addressed the needs of students

with disabilities. Although IDEA was created to provide equity, policymakers did not think

carefully about the cultural-historical factors that may lead it to be misaligned with the Brown vs.

Board of Education (1954) decision. Although the Brown decision declared that racial segregation

was unconstitutional, after the passage of IDEA, an increase in the rate of students of color placed

in special education occurred. Unfortunately, the mandatory desegregation of schools dismantled

the relationships among African American schools, African American parents, and African

American communities. This outcome reduced parents' ability to fight the disproportionate

placement of their children in programs for students with certain disabilities (Artiles, Kozleski,

Trent, Osher, & Ortiz, 2010).

The inequalities resulting from the disproportionate placement of students of color in special

education are unfortunate because IDEA was designed to increase the rights of students with

disabilities. The history of special education before and after the passage of IDEA reveals that this

policy was meant to encourage equity. Before the enactment of IDEA, a few states passed laws

designed to protect the rights of students with special needs. However, after IDEA was enacted,

all students were provided with this protection, and the mandate required six major principles to

be followed to ensure that all children with special needs would receive specialized services. These

principles involved a zero reject model, an individualized education program, nondiscriminatory

evaluation, education in the least restrictive environment, procedural due process for parents and

schools, and parental and student participation (if appropriate) in all aspects of the special

education process (Artiles et al., 2010).

The Impact of the Problem

In addition to the concerns previously mentioned about the harmful effects associated with the

disproportionate representation of students of color in special education are other reasons

educators need to be aware of to reduce this problem. For example, assigning a disproportionate

rate of students from a given racial group to segregated classrooms is harmful because inclusive

educational settings benefit students with disabilities in many ways. The advantages associated

with inclusive settings include fewer behavioral problems, improved math and reading

achievement, higher graduation rates, improved attendance, and lower rates of unemployment after

graduation (Potter & Quick, 2018).

In addition, in most cases, non-disabled students do not experience negative consequences when

they are educated with students with disabilities and can even benefit from this practice (Hehir et

al., 2016). When educated alongside peers with disabilities, students without disabilities usually

exhibit reduced prejudice and increased self-esteem (Potter & Quick, 2018).

Morgan: Misunderstood and mistreated: Students of color in special education

In order for students of color to benefit from special education, they need to be identified accurately

and placed in effective programs. In too many cases, placing these students in special education

leads to less-than-optimal results. For example, a study on over 1,000 children who were

predominantly African American revealed that those receiving special education services tended

to experience lower rates of high school completion and higher rates of depression, incarceration,

and substance misuse.

The researchers offered several explanations for these outcomes. They mentioned that schools may

use effective research-based practices infrequently and that the label of special education may

harm children psychologically and also lead to stigmatization, bullying, and low teacher

expectations (Chesmore, Ou, & Reynolds, 2016). They also reported that previous studies revealed

that students placed in special education were at greater risk of dropping out of high school, earning

less, experiencing unemployment, and enrolling in postsecondary education for fewer years.

Strategies for Reducing the Problem

One way to alleviate the problems associated with the special education programs students of color

are often placed in is to train teachers to be culturally responsive. Ford and Russo (2016) suggested

implementing this approach to deal with the lack of college courses that focus on preparing

educators for teaching these students. Another reason this training is crucial is that there is a lack

of teachers of color in the public-school system. As previously noted, teachers of the same race as

their students are more likely to be aware of the cultural characteristics of their students than

teachers of a different race. Increasing the cultural competence of educators can be achieved by

offering professional development sessions:

[T]here is work indicating that when such preparation is evident,

educators are less biased in their views of Black and other students

of color. In other words, culturally competent educators are more

likely to see strengths in their students. This can decrease special

education (over) referrals. Accordingly, educational leaders should

offer regular, annual professional development sessions with

teachers and other staff to explain the importance of being culturally

responsive. (Ford & Russo, 2016, p. 56)

Training educators to be culturally responsive will help them recognize the cultural characteristics

of African American and other students of color. For example, Ford (2012) discussed nine

characteristics of African American students that teachers need to be aware of to avoid

misunderstandings. Each characteristic reflects the way many of them behave in school. For

instance, these students’ sense of harmony involves recognition of the connection between people

and their environment. This characteristic often leads them to be more sensitive to nonverbal and

situational messages. Black students may also show a sense of working cooperatively. However,

teachers may misinterpret this style as a weakness. Educators need to be aware of these and other

cultural characteristics to reduce misinterpretations that lead to referrals to special education.

Another strategy involves improving the inadequate schools many low-income students attend.

Schools in low-income districts generally receive less funding than wealthier schools and operate

Morgan: Misunderstood and mistreated: Students of color in special education

with fewer resources (Morgan, 2018b, 2020). This condition contributes to an increase in

undertrained teachers who have to take on larger workloads. As a consequence, teachers in low-

income schools are less likely to provide the time needed to work with students with special needs

to make sure their needs are met (Koseki, 2017).

Involving students’ families is also essential. Information sessions and parent workshops can be

organized to explain various aspects of the IDEA. Family members need to know their rights as

decision makers and the kinds of behavior and learning problems IDEA defines as disabilities.

This information will allow them to make the best decisions, including those involving the refusal

of special education placement (Ford & Russo, 2016).

The inclusion of a mandatory school counselor will likely compensate for the limited influence

many parents of low-income students with special needs have toward improving their children’s

educational opportunities. These parents typically have difficulty understanding the due-process

materials schools use since these documents are written in legalese requiring college level

schooling to understand (Morgan & Farkas, 2018).

Low-income parents lack the financial resources to hire knowledgeable experts, preventing them

to take advantage of IDEA’s reliance on parental advocacy. A counselor can serve as an advocate

and can play a similar role as the one that a parent from a wealthier family might play. Congress

can improve the opportunities for low-income students with special needs by requiring school

counselors to speak for low-income students’ unique needs (Koseki, 2017).

Conclusion

The disproportionate representation of students of color in special education is a serious and

controversial concern that needs to be dealt with well. This problem is controversial because

overrepresentation in special education does not necessarily mean that students from a given group

are placed inappropriately. In fact, Morgan and Farkas (2018) argue that students of color are

frequently under-identified for special services. Nonetheless, evidence exists suggesting that bias

occurs in the placement of these students, that they are more likely to be segregated than other

students, and that the programs they attend are inferior in quality. If children are in need of special

education, it would be tragic to not provide it. However, inappropriate placement in segregated

programs that will likely not yield favorable outcomes is tragic as well. Unfortunately, research

suggests that these trends occur too often.

To alleviate this problem, policymakers need to lower the chances of biased placement and reduce

the rate at which students of color are segregated when placed in special education. They also need

to improve the overall quality of the educational services these children receive and to provide

special services to all students who need them. To avoid biased placement, schools need to

implement policies that increase culturally responsive practices. These policies need to focus on

providing training to increase cultural competence and ensuring that committees of decision

makers are racially diverse (Ford & Russo, 2016).

Finally, the unacceptable practice of funding high-poverty schools inadequately needs to end.

Students who attend low-income schools need more support from qualified educators, not less.

Morgan: Misunderstood and mistreated: Students of color in special education

Using the aforementioned strategies will prevent the inappropriate placement of students of color

in special education and will increase their opportunities for receiving it when they need it.

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