1
"""
LEGAL"TECH,"CIVIL"PROCEDURE,"AND"THE"FUTURE"OF"ADVERSARIALISM"
!
Forthcoming,"169"U."PA."L."REV."__"(2020)"
"
DAVID"FREEMAN"ENGSTROM
*
"
JONAH"B."GELBACH
**
"
"
"
“Legal'tech”'is't ransforming'litigation'and'law'practice,'and'its'steady'advance'has'
tapped'a' rich'vein'of'anxiety'about' the'future'of'the'legal'profession.''Much'of'the'
resulting'debate'narrowly'focuses'on'what'legal'tech'portends'for'the'professional'
authority,' and' profitability ,' of' lawyers.' ' It' is' also' profoundly' futurist,' full' of'
references'to'“robolawyers”'and'“roboju dges.”''Lost'in'this'rush'to'foretell'the'future'
of' lawyers'is' what' should' be' an' equally' or' even' more' important' concern:'' What'
effect'will'legal'tec h’s'continued'advance'have'on'core'features'of'our'civil'justice'
system' and' the' procedural' rules' that' structure' it?''Tackling ' that' question,' this'
Article'seeks'to'enrich—and,'in'places,'reorient—budding'debate'about'legal'tech’s'
implications'for'law'and'litigation'by'zeroing'in'on'the'near-'to'medium-term,'not'
out'at'a'distant,'hazy'horizon.''It'does'so'via'three'case'studies,'each'one'exploring'
how'a'specific'legal'tech'tool'(e-discovery'tools,'outcome-prediction'tools,'tools'that'
perform'advanced'legal'analytics)'might'alter'litigation,'for'good'and'ill,'by'shifting'
the'distribution'of'costs'and'infor mation'within'the'syst em.''Each'case'study'then'
traces' how' a'concrete'set'of'civil' procedure'rules—from'Twombly/Iqbal’s'pleading '
standard'and'the'work'product'doctrine'to'rules'and'doctrines'that'govern'forum-
shopping—can,'or' should,'adapt' in'response.'' When'these'assorted' dynamics'are'
lined'up'and'viewed't ogether,'it'is'not'a'stretch'to'suggest'that'legal'tech'will'remake'
the'adversarial'system,'not'by'replacing'lawyers'and'judges'with'robots,'but'rather'
by'unsettling,'and'even'resetting,'several'of'the'system’s'procedural'cornerstones.''
The'challenge'for'courts—and,'in' time,'for'rulemakers'and'legislators—will'be'how'
best'to'adapt'a'digitized'litigation'system'using'civil'procedure'rules'built'for'a'very'
different,'analog'era.''This'Article'aims'to'jumpstart'thinking'about'that'process'by'
identifying'the'principal'ways'that'legal'tech'will'reshape'“our'adversarialism”'and'
mapping'a'reform'and'research'agenda'going'forward.'
"
" "
*
"Pro fes s o r "of"L aw"and"Ass o ciat e"D ean ,"Stan fo rd"Law"School."""Both"authors"thank"El ena"Goldstein,"Reed"Sawyers,"and "
Liza"Starr"for"excellent"research"assistan ce"an d "participants" at"the"Fifth"Annual"Civil"Procedure"Workshop"at"the"University"of "
Texas"Sc h o o l"of"Law"and"th e"panel"on"The"Fu ture"of"Leg al"Tech,"Civil"Procedure,"an d"the"Adversari al"Syste m"at"th e"2019"CodeX"
FutureLaw"Conference"for"helpful" convers ations ." "
**
"Pro fessor" o f" Law,"B er keley"Law"School."
Electronic copy available at: https://ssrn.com/abstract=3551589
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Table! of!Contents"
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A.!!456789:)8;).<=65)#<>?!..........................................................................................................................!8"
B.!!#<>?@A>65).ABAC:)6@D)C?<)#96E<>C89F)2 GHH5<!..............................................................................!14"
C.!!!BI5A>6CA8@:!.........................................................................................................................................!21"
1.!!.<=65)#<>?)6@D)C?<).<=65)298;<::A8@"............................................................................................... "21"
2.!!.<=65)#<>?)6@D)$G5<)8;).6J".................................................................................................................."23"
3.!!.<=65)#<>?)6@D)&A:C9AKGCA8@"................................................................................................................"25"
!!*)). -/0.)#-(,)0"&)(!L!.)2$%(-&'$-M))#,$--)(01-)1#'&!-1)************************************************************************)N3"
A.!!29<DA>CA7<)(8DA@=O)298I89CA8@65ACFO)6@D)256G:AKA5ACF)25<6DA@=!...........................................!27"
1.!!#?<)"<J)P895D)8;)&A:>87<9F"................................................................................................................"28"
2.!!298I89CA8@65ACFQ:)$<C9<6C)A@)6)49A>CA8@5<::)P895D"....................................................................."33"
3.!!$<R (<@C<9A@=!Twombly!6@D!Iqbal....................................................................................................."36"
B.!!29<DA>CA7<)0@65FCA>:)6@D)489GB)1<5<>CA8@!.................................................................................!38"
1.!!489GBR1?8IIA@=)A@)4<D<965)(8G9C:)6@D)C?<)298BA:<)8;)29<DA>CA7<)0@65FCA>:"............."38"
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2.!!HickmanQ:)P89 T)298DG>C)W69=6A@...................................................................................................."49"
3.!!P89T)298DG>C);89)6)&A=AC65)0=<"................................................................ .........................................."52"
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B.!!.<=65)#<>?)6@D)C?<)/<9B6@)[&A:\0D76@C6=<!............................................................................!57"
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Electronic copy available at: https://ssrn.com/abstract=3551589
3
INTRODUCTION!
“Legal"tech,”"most"agree,"is"transforming"litigation"and"law"practice,"and"its"steady"advance"has"
tapped"a"rich"vein"of"anxiety"about"the" future"of"the"legal"profession.
1
""Is"law"like"a"driverless"
car,"or"is"it"irreducibly"complex"and"grounded"in"dynamic"human"judgment?""How"to"square"
online"dispute"resolution"and"automated"legal"advice"with"rules"governing"unauthorized"
practice"of"law?""Can"BigLaw"survive?""Much"of"this"has"a"profession-centered"and"even"
defensive"quality"in"its"narro w"focus"on"what"legal"tech"portends"for"the"professional"authority,"
and"profitability,"of"lawyers.""Much"of"it"is"also"profoundly"futurist—full"of"prophecies"of"
“robolawyers,”
2
"“ro bojudges,”
3
"or"even"an"eventual"state"of"“legal"singularity,”
4
"when"machines"
can"perfectly"predict"the"outcomes"of"cases"before"they"are"filed."""""""
"
Lost"in"this"rush"to"foretell"the"future"of"lawyers"and"their"robotic"replacements"is"what"should"
be"an"equally"or"even"more"important"concern:""What"effect"will"legal"tech’s"continued"advance"
have"on"core"features"of"o ur"civil"justice"system"and,"in"particular,"the"procedural"rules"that"
structure"it?""This"Article"seeks"to"enrich—and,"in"places,"reorient—budding"debate"about"what"
many"see"as"a"coming"revolution"in"legal"tech.""Simply"put,"if"law"and"the"legal"profession"will"
loo k"different"ten"or"fifteen"years"from"now,"then"civil"procedure,"and"the"inner"workings"and"
structure"of"the"adversarial"system,"will"look"different"as" well." "Indeed,"though"virtually"
unmentioned"in"a"lively"but"high-level"new"literature"on"legal"tech’s"potential"implications"for"
rule"of"law,
5
"it"is"the"rules"of"civil"procedure"and"related"doctrines"that"will"serve"as"the"front-
line"regulators"of"the"new"legal"tech"tools,"and"critically"shape"their"evolution,"in"the"near-to"
1
"See,'e.g.,"BENJAMIN"BARTON,"GLASS"HALF"FULL:"THE"DECLINE"AND"REBIRTH"OF"THE"LEGAL"PROFESSION"(2015);"RICHARD"
SUSSKIND,"TOMORROW’S"LAWYERS:"AN"INTRO DUCTION"TO"YOUR"FUTURE"(2013);"RICHARD"SUSSKIND"&"DANIEL"SUSSKIND,"THE"FUTURE"OF"
THE"PROFESSIONS:"HOW"TECHNOLOGY"WILL"TRANSFORM"THE"WORK"OF"HUMAN"EXPERTS"(2015);"Daniel"Martin"Katz,"Quantitative'
Legal'Prediction'-'Or'-'How'I'Learned'to'Stop'Worrying'and'Start'Preparing'for'the'Data-Dri ven'Future'of'the'Legal'Service s'
Industry,"62"EMORY "L.J."909"(2013);"John"O."McGinnis"&"Russell"G."Pearce,"The'Great'Disruption:'How'Machine'Intelligence'
Will'Transform'the'Role'of'Lawyers'in'the'Delivery'of'Legal'Services,"82"FORDHAM""L."REV."3041"(2014);"Dana"A."Remus"&"
Frank"Levy," Can'Robots'Be'Lawyers:'Computers,'Lawyers,'and'the'Practice'of'Law,"30"GEO."J."LEGAL"ETHICS"501"(2017);"
Tanina"Rostain,"Robots'versus'Lawye rs:'A'User-Centered'Approach,"30"GEO."J."LEGAL"ETHICS"559"(2017);"Sean"Semmler"&"
Zeeve"Rose,"Artificial'Intelligence:'Applic ati on'Today'and'Implications'Tomorrow,"16"DUKE"L."&"TECH."REV."85"(2017) ;"Harry"
Surden,"Machine'Learning'and'Law,"89"WASH."L."REV."87"(2014);"Eric"Talley,"Is'The'Future'of'La w'a'Driverles s'Car?'Assessing'
How'the'Dat a'Analytics'Revolution'Will'Transform'Legal'Practice,"174"J."INST."&"THEORE TICAL"ECON."183"(2018);"David"C."
Vladeck,"Machine s'withou t'Principals:'Liability'Rules'and'Artifici al'Intelligence,"89"WASH."L."R EV ."117"(2014).""For"treatments"
in"the"popular"and"lawyer-trade"presses,"see"Mark"A."Cohen,"Legal'Innovation'Is'Not'an'Oxymoron—It’s'Further'Along'Than'
You'Think,"FORBES"(Mar."14,"2017),"https://www.forbes.com/sites/markcohen1/2017/03/14/legal-innovation-is-no t-an-
oxymoron-its-farther-along-than-you-think/;"Jason"Koebler,"Rise'of'the'Robolawyers,"THE"ATLANTIC"(Apr."2017),"
https://www.theatlantic.com/magazine/archive/2017/04/rise-of-the-robolawyers/517794/;"Steve"Lohr,"AI'Is' Doing'
Legal'Work,'But'It'Won’t'Replace'Lawyers,'Yet,"N.Y."TIMES"(Mar."19,"2017),"
https://www.nytimes.com/2017/03/19/technology/la wyers-artificial-intelligence.html;"John"Markoff,"Armies'of'
Expensive'Lawyers,'Replaced'by'Cheaper'Software,"N.Y."TIMES"(Mar."4,"2011),"
https://www.nytimes.com/2011/03/05/science/05le gal.html;"Debra"Cassens"Weiss,"Will'Technology'Create'a'Lawyer'
‘Jobs-Pocalypse’?,"A.B.A."J."( Jan."5,"2016),"
http://www.abajournal.com/news/ article/does_technology_presage_a_lawyer_jobs_pocalypse_naysayers_overstate_impa
ct.""
2
"See,"e.g.,"Gary"Marchant"&"Josh"Covey,"Robo-Lawyers,"45"LITIGATION"27"(2018);"Koebler,"supra'note"1."
3
"See,"e.g.,"Eugene"Volokh,"Chief'Justice'Robots,"68"DUKE"L.J."1135"(2019);"Aziz"Huq,"The'Right'to'a'Human'Decision,"
105"VA."L."REV."(forthcoming"2020);"Frank"Pasquale,"A'Rule'of'Persons,'Not'M achines:'The'Limits'of'Legal'Automation,"87"
GEO."WASH."L."REV."1"(2019).""See'also"Richard"M."Re"&"Alicia"Solo w-Niederman,"Developing'Artificially'Intelligent'Justice,"22"
STAN."TECH."L."REV."323"(2019)"(asserting"that"“the"prospect"of"‘robot"judges’"suddenly"seems"plausible—even"imminent”);""
4
"See"Benjamin"Alarie,"The'Path'of'the'Law:'Toward'Legal'Singularity,"66"U."TORONTO"L.J."443"(2016)"[hereinafter"
Alarie,"Path]."
5
For a survey, see notes __-__, infra, and accompanying text.
Electronic copy available at: https://ssrn.com/abstract=3551589
4
medium-term.""As"a"result,"judges,"rulemakers, "and"legislators"should"begin"to"think"about"
whether,"and"if"so"how,"to"adapt"civil"procedure"to"new"litigation"realities"as"legal"tech"
continues"its"move"to"the"center"of"the"civil"justice"system."""
"
We"aim"to"spark"concrete"thinking"about"this"mediating"role"for"civil"procedure" by"focusing"on"
the"near"future—not"out"at"a"horizon"dotted"with"robojudges"and"robolawyers—and"then"
asking"how"legal"tech"will"change"litigation"and,"in"turn,"how"procedure" can"or"sh ould"adapt"in"
response.""The"core"of"our"argument"proceeds"from"the"premise"that"legal"tech’s"proliferation"is"
likely"to"alter"two"foundational"aspects"of"any"litigation"system:""the"distribution"of"litigation"
costs "and"the"distribution"of"information.""In"a"nutshell,"there"is"good"reason"to"believe"that"the"
concern"about"high"and"asymmetric"litigation"costs"that"has"fueled"several"decades’"worth"of"
litigation"reforms"will"progressively"fade"as"new"and"powerful"e-discovery"tools"propagate.""By"
contrast,"it"is"plausible"that"increasing"uptake"of"legal"tech"tools,"including"e-discovery"tools"but"
also"tools"that"perform"legal"research"and"analytics"and"predict"case"outcomes,"will"worryingly"
widen"information"asymmetries"within"the"system,"between"judges"and"litigants,"and"also"
betwe en"litigants"and"litigants,"particularly"litigation’s"“haves”"as"against"its"“have"nots.”"""
"
Isolating"legal"tech’s"effects"on"these"deep"dimensions"of"the"system"provides"needed"analytic"
traction"and"grounds"a"set"of"concrete"ju dgments"about"how"an"array"of"civil"procedure"rules"
and"doctrines—among"them"the"plausibility"pleading"standard"set"forth"in"Twombly"and"Iqbal,"
the"bundle"of"procedural"rules,"doctrines,"and"statutes"concerned"with"forum-sho pping,"and"the"
work"product"doctrine—can,"or"should,"adjust"in"response.""When"these"assorted"dynamics"are"
lined"up"and"viewed"together,"it"is"not"a"stretch"to"say"that"legal"tech"will," in"time,"remake"the"
adversarial"system,"not"by"replacing"lawyers"and"judges"with"robots,"but"rather"by"unsettling,"
and"even"resetting,"several"of"its"procedural"cornerstones."
"
These"are"big"claims,"and"they"demand"both"a"technical"grasp"of"the"legal"tech"toolkit"and"
command"of"contemporary"civil"procedure.""Given"these"complexities,"we"build"ou r"argument"
deliberately,"in"three"steps."""
"
Part"I"offers"a"full"and"q uasi- technical"accounting"of"where"legal"tech"currently"is"and"where"it"
is"likely"to"go"in"the"near-"to"medium-term"as"natural"language"processing"(NLP)"and"other"
machine"learning"techniques"that"power"the"most"consequential"legal"tech"tool s"continue"to"
improve.""In"so"doing,"we"strike"a"skeptical"note"and"also"go"about"our"labors"with"a"heavy"dose"
of"humility.""As"with"any"emergent"technology,"legal"tech"is"a"fast-moving"field,"and"any"effort"to"
capture"its"many"facets"risks"becoming " antiquated"almost"as"soon"as"the"ink"dries.""We"manage"
this"contingency"by"surveying"the"legal"tech"landscape"in"three"pieces.""Part"I.A"reviews"legal"
tech’s"flavors"and"offers"some"ways"to"slice"and"di ce"them.""Part"I.B"turns"to"legal"tech’s"
technical"trajectory.""It"shows"that,"while"the"frontier"is"quickly"moving"beyond"e-discovery"and"
digital"referencing"tools"(think "Westlaw"or"Lexis)"to" tools"that"automatically"gather"legal"
materials,"predict"case"o utcomes,"and"even"draft"legal"documents," there"are"also" legitimate"
questions"about"how"far"and"how"quickly"legal"tech"can"advance.""Just"how "much"progress"can"
be"made"on"outcome"pre diction"tools"given"pervasive"confidential"settlements"and"the"
resulting"lack"of"well-labeled"data,"or"the"current"technical"limits"of"natural"language"
processing"(NLP)"in"extracting"and"analyzing" legal"argumentation?""Part"I.C"summarizes"some"
key"implications"of"legal"tech—for"the"legal"profession,"for"the"distribution"of"power"within"the"
legal"system,"and"for"law"itself—as"sketched"in"an"emerging"academic"literature"that,"while"
highly"abstract,"has"begun"to"stake"out"the"poles"of"a"rich"debate.""A"thorough"survey"of"the"legal"
Electronic copy available at: https://ssrn.com/abstract=3551589
5
tech"landscape"pro vides"the"raw"material"for"the"more"focused"ca se" studies"of"procedure"to"
come."
"
Armed"with"Part"I’s"extended"account"of"legal"tech’s"pathways"of"innovation"and"diffusion,"we"
turn"in"Part"II"to"offering"three"concrete "cuts"at"how"legal"tech’s"advance"will"resh ape"American"
litigation"and"how"procedural"rules"might"mediate"those"effects.""""
"
Part"II.A "starts"on"familiar"ground:""e-discovery"or,"in"more"technical"terms,"the"“predictive"
coding”"tools"that"are"quickly"becoming"a"fixture"of"complex"litigation"practice.""Our"core"claim"
is"that," contrary"to"the"views"of"some,"civil"litigation"may"well"see"a"steady"decline"in"overall"
discovery"costs"and,"by"extension,"a"narrowing"of"the"litigation"cost"asymmetries"that"have"
motivated"decades"of"litigation"reforms,"f ro m"the"Civil"Jus tice"Reform"Act"of"1990"to"the"2015"
amendments"reshuffling"Rule"26’s"proportionality"constraint.""In"a"lower- friction"world,"we"
predict,"battles"over"proportionality"would"largely"abate."" Narrowing"litigation"cost"
asymmetries"may"also"alter," or"at"least"destabilize," the"normative"foundation"of"a"very"diff erent,"
and"controversial,"part"of"civil"pro cedure:""the"plausibility"pleading"doctrine"set"forth"in"
Twombly"and"Iqbal.""That"doctrine"sits"at"the"intersection"of"two"competing"concerns:""litigation"
cost"asymmetries,"with"attendant"concerns"about"undue"settlement"leverage"and"the"
conversion"of"low-"or"even"negative-value"cases"into"positive-dollar"settlements,"and"
information"asymmetries"in"cases"where"only"discovery"can"dislodge"privately"held"
information"about"wrongdoing.""By"sy stematically"narrowing"litigation"cost"asymmetries,"
predictive"coding"could"undermine"the"positive"foundation"of"the"new"plausibility"pleading"
regime."""
"
Part"II.B"turns"to"legal"tech"tools"that"predict"case"outcomes.""An"obvious"concern"is"that"
continued"advances"in"outcome"prediction"tools"will"foster"forum"shopping,"placing"pressure"
on"the"rules,"statutes,"and"doctrines—venue,"removal,"Erie"doctrine—that"seek"to"limit"or"
shape"its"pursuit.""Here"we"sound"a"more"skeptical"note"about"legal"tech’s"implications"for"civil"
procedure.""Current"procedural"rules"and"doctrines"touching"upon"forum"shopping"strike"a"
permissive"pose,"and"so"an"initial"question"is"whether"successful"deployment"of"p redictive"
analytics"should"change"that"pose.""Further"grou nds"for"skepticism"are"the"technical"and"
practical"limits"of"outcome"prediction"tools,"which"may"not"“work”"well"enough"to"meaningfully"
increase"forum-shopping"in"the"first "place.""Even"if"the"technical"hurdles"can"be"leapt,"two"other"
major"obstacles"stand"in"legal"tech’s"way.""First"is"the"huge"cost"of"assembling"eno ugh"docket"
and"document"data"to"obtain"sufficiently"large"and"representative"samples"for"contemporary"
predictio n"methods."" Second"are"a"pair"of"endogeneity"problems"that"raise"prof ound"questions"
about"either"the"initial"or"subsequent"useful ness"of"even"predictions"based"on"large"samples"of"
data.""Still,"we"think"it"useful"to"ask:""If"predictive"analytics"did"“work,”"and"if"machine-aided"
forum"shopping"falls"into"disfavor,"what"follo ws?""Here"lie"some"of"the"most"bracing"procedural"
possibilities.""Effective"outcome-prediction"tools"and"supercharged"forum-sho pping"might"
steadily"widen"asymmetries"in"the"quantity"and"quality"of"information"available"to"litigants"and"
judges.""This"might"warrant"chan ges"in"the"treatment"of"forum"shopping"motives,"in"the"
discoverability"of"work"product,"or"both.""It"would"also"raise"questions"about"whether"judges"
making"choice-of-forum"determinations,"or"deciding"motions"to"dismiss"and"for"summary"
judgment,"should"be" empowered"to"order"parties"to"disclose"their"machine"outputs"or"perhaps"
even"equipped"with"the"same"prediction"tools"litigants"are"using.""Either"scenario"would" press"
on"the"bounds"of"current"conceptions"of"“managerial"judging”"and"the"proper"allocation"of"
authority"between"judge"and"jury."""
Electronic copy available at: https://ssrn.com/abstract=3551589
6
"
Part"II.C"asks"a"key"questi on"that"looms"in"the"background"of"the"other"case"studies"and,"indeed,"
all"of"legal"tech:""How"might"the"work"product"doctrine"need"to"change"to"accommodate"a"world"
in"which"a"non-trivial"amount"of"lawyering,"including"not"just"discovery"and"outcome"
predictio n,"but"also"legal"(re)search,"brief-writing,"and"strategic"litigation "judgment,"takes"the"
form"of"machine-generated"ou tputs?""The"fount"of"the"work"product"r ule,"Hickman'v.'Taylor,"
famously"brackets"distributive"concerns—i.e.,"the"fact"that"some"parties"can"afford"better"
counsel"than"others—and"instead"protects"against"“wits"borrowed"from"the"adversary,”"as"
Justice"Jackson"put"it,"so"that"parties,"and " the"system,"can"capture"the"benefit"of"good"
lawyering.""In"so"doing,"the"work"product"rule"secures"the"conditions"necessary"for"a"well-
functioning"adversarial"system"by"ensuring"returns"on,"and"thus"investment"in,"legal"talent.""But"
as"legal"tech"tools"grow"more"powerful,"and"if"the"“haves”"have"them"and"the"“have"nots”"do"
not,"legal"tech"could"well"shift"the"normative"ground"out"from"under"a"cornerstone"of"the"
American"procedural"system.""In"this"new"machine-driven"world,"should"we,"to"invoke"Justice"
Jackson’s"turn"of"phrase"in"Hickman, "protect"against"“borrowed"bits”"the"same"way"we"protect"
against"“borrowed"wits”?"""
"
Part"III"steps"back"and"draws"out"some"connections"across"the"case"studies.""In"particular,"we"
show"how"legal"tech’s"continued"advance"will"place"civil"procedure"in"a"new"and"uncharted"
posture.""In"particular,"judges—and,"in"time,"rulemakers"and"legislators—will"come"to"preside"
over"what"amounts"to"a"shadow"innovation"policy"because"their"procedural"choices"will"sh ape"
the"terms"of"legal"tech’s"use,"its"value"to"litigants,"and"its"market"for"production.""Just"as"
important,"legal"tech’s"advance"will"compel"judges"and"policymakers"to"make"explicit"or"
implicit"judgments"about"the"optimal"balance"of"adversary"as"against"judicial"control"of"civil"
proceedings.""In"making"those"judgments,"they"will"shape"the"future"of"American"
adversarialism."""
"
Before"launching,"some"caveats:""First,"we"make"no"claims"to"comprehensiveness.""Nor"is"ours"a"
case"study"approach"in"the"rigorous"comparativist "sense"of"making"causal"judgments"about"
legal"tech’s"effect"on"procedure"or"vice"versa.""Rather,"our"aim"is"to"map"legal"tech’s"conceptual"
landscape"and,"by"identifying"a"set"of"key"procedural"questions" it"implicates,"chart"furt her"
productive"lines"of"inquiry.""Last,"we"seek"to"be"both"far-thinking"and"concrete—thus"achieving"
a"salutary,"middle- level"of"abstraction"that"is"grounded"in"actual,"not"h ypothetical,"legal"tech"
tools,"as"mediated" by"existing,"not"hypothetical," procedural"rules.""In"other"words,"we"aim"to"cut"
through"the"“AI"fever”"that"infects"the"literature"on"legal"tech,"and"on"AI"and"law"more"broadly,"
without"losing"generality"or"zing.""This"is"not"to"say"legal"tech"lacks"implications"for"the"civil"
justice" system"beyond"civil"procedure.""Will"legal"tech"further"vanish"the"vanishing"trial,"blunt"
incentives"for"private"litigants"to"conduct"socially"valuable"discovery,"or"stunt"the"dynamic"
evolution"of"legal"norms?""Throughout"the"Article,"we"address"these"and"other"wider-aperture"
questions"in"passing."" However,"our"focus"remains"how"procedure"can,"or"should,"mediate"the"
legal"tech"revolution"over"the"near-"to"medium-term."""
! !
Electronic copy available at: https://ssrn.com/abstract=3551589
7
I.!!THE!LEGAL!TECH!LANDSCAPE!
"
In"Law’s'Empire,"Ronald"Dworkin"builds"his"influential"theory"of"legal"interpretation"around"a"
mythical"uber-judge,"Hercules,"with"a"superhuman"capacity"to"read " and"understand"every"
available"scrap"of"legal"material"and"thus"reach"a"unique"right"answer"in"every"case.
6
""
Dworkin’s"project"was"to"critique"the"legal"positivism"of"H.L.A."Hart,"and"so"it"sits"far"away,"
intellectually"speaking,"from "the"world"of"legal"tech.""But"Dworkin’s"Hercules"has"recently"taken"
on"renewed"relevance"as" legal"tech’s"advance"has"allowed"us"to"glimpse"a"world"in"which"
machines,"not"just"mythical"judges,"can"unerringly"adjudicate"cases"or"even"predict"a"case’s"
outcome"before"it"is"filed.""As"Michael"Livermore"and"Daniel"Rockmore"recently"put"it,"judges,"
lawyers," and"much"of"the"legal"system"as"we"know"it"may"someday"soon"be"replaced"by"
“blinking"computerized"Herculi”"that"sit"in"“server"farms"rather"than"law"offices.”
7
"""
"
This"image"of"server"farms"replacing"courthouses"is"an"emotive"one,"and"a"cottage"industry"of"
mostly"academic"commentators"has"seized"on"it"and"set"about"imagining "futuristic"end-
points—an"event"horizon"of"sorts,"where"law"and"technology"meet.""Blinking"Herculi,"it"is"said,"
will"in"turn"bring"a"state"of"“legal"singularity,”"when"all"legal"outcomes"are"perfectly"pr edictable"
ex'ante,"and"all"uncertainty"is"banished"from"the"system.
8
""And"law"itself"will"be"steadily"
transformed"into"a"“vast"catalogue"of" precisely"tailored"laws,”"or"“microdirectives,”
9
"made"up"of"
“up-to-the-second"individualized”
10
"rules"that"adjust"in"real-time—for"instance,"an"
individualized"speed"limit"for"a"given"driver"with"a"given"amount"of"experience"operating"in"
specific"driving"conditions—and"are"enforced"via"automatic"penalties.
11
""As"this"new"and"
“seamless"legal"order”"settles"into"place,"there"is"no"longer"any"need,"or"any"room,"for"
lawyering,"adjudication,"jud ges,"or"judicial"discretion.""Law"becomes"“self-driving.”
12
"""
"
But"just"how"likely"are"we"to"get"there,"and,"assuming"we"make"it"at"all,"how"soon?""More"
importantly,"what"can"we"expect"in"the"meantime?""This"Part"addresses"these"questions.""In"so"
doing,"we"lower"our"gaze"to"a"useful"middle"distance—our"eyes"neither"inside"the"boat"nor"
drifting"out"to"a"distant,"Herculi-blinking"horizon—and"provide"a"systematic"accounting"of"
what"we"currently"know,"and"don’t"kn ow,"about"the"state"of"legal"tech.""We"address:""legal"tech ’s"
current"range"of"applications"(Part"I.A);"its"trajectory,"as"shaped"in"particular"by"the"
technological"possibilities"and"limits"of"text-based"analytics"(Part"I.B);"and"its"implications"for"
the"legal"pr ofession,"the"legal"system,"and"law"itself"(Part"I.C).""The"resulting"composite"portrait"
provides"the"raw"materials"necessary"for"Part"II’s"exploration"of"some"concrete"ways"the"rules"
of"civil"procedure"will"mediate"legal"tech’s"incorporation"into"the"adversarial"system"in"the"
near-"to"medium-term."""
6
"See"RONALD"DWORKIN,"LAW’S"EMP IRE"(1986)."""
7
"See"Michael"A."Livermore"&"Da niel"N."Rockmore,"Introducti o n :'From'Analogue' to ' Digital'Legal'Scholarship,"in"
LAW"AS"DATA:"COMPUTATION,"TEXT,"&"THE"FUTURE"OF"LEGAL"ANALYSIS"xiv"(Livermo re"&"Rockmore"eds.,"2019)"[hereinafter"LAW"AS"
DATA]."
8
"See"Alarie,"Path,"supra"note"4,"at"445."
9
"See"Anthony"J."Casey"&"Anthony"Niblett,"The'Death'of'Rules'and'Standards,"92"IND."L."REV"1401,"1403"(2017)"
[her einafter"Casey"&"Niblett,"Death]."
10
"See"Brian"Sheppard,"Warming'Up'to'Inscrutability:'How'Technology'Could'Challen ge'Our'Concept'of'Law,"68"U."
TORONTO"L.J.""36,"40"(2018).""Casey"&"Niblett,"Death,"supra"note"9,"at"1404-06;"Anthony"Casey"&"Anthony"Niblett,"Self-
Driving'Contracts,"43"J."Corp."L."1,"7-10"(2017)"[hereinafter"Casey"&"Niblett,"Self-Driving].."
11
"See'Sheppard,"supra"note"10,"at"40.""Casey"&"Niblett,"Death,"supra"note"9,"at"1404;"Casey"&"Niblett,"Self-Driving,"
supra"note"10,"at"7-10."
12
"See"Casey"&"Niblett,"Self-Driving,"supra"note"10,"at"5."
Electronic copy available at: https://ssrn.com/abstract=3551589
8
A.!!456789:)8;).<=65)#<>? !
"
An"initial"task"is"to"survey"legal"tech’s"sprawling"l a ndscape." "In"what"ways,"and"toward"what"
ends,"are"legal"tech"tools"being"deployed"within"the"American"litigation"system?"""
"
A"small"literature"surveys"the"legal"tech"field"and"offers"some"ways"to"slice"and"dice"its"
component"parts.
13
""One"approach"honors"legal"tech’s"entrepreneurial"tilt"and"focuses"on"sales"
channel,"categorizing"tools"based"on"their"end"users"(e.g.,"lawyers,"clients/parties,"
businesses).
14
""Amon g"its"virtues,"this"approach"separates"out"tools"that"substitute"for"legal"
representation"(e.g.,"online"legal"advice"tools)"from"those"that"remain"within"lawyers’"locus"of"
control"(e.g.,"e-discovery"tools).""Another"approach"could"focus"on"the"task"performed:""legal"
research,"document"management"and"crea t i on,"and"document-"and"case-level"analytics,"among"
others.""Still"another"approach"could"focus"on"the"point"in"litigation"time"at"which"a"tool"is"used.""
Categories"include"tools"used,"beginning"with"the"front-end"of"a"case,"lawyer-client"matching,"
legal"research"and"analysis,"discovery,"the"drafting"of"pleadings"and"documents,"an d"trial.""A"
final"approach"would"categorize"legal"tech"tools"based"on"subject"area." " This"approach"
highlights"proliferating"domain-specific"tools,"particularly"in"the"contracts"area,"but"also"
patents"(e.g.,"tools"that"value"patents"and"patent"portfolios),"divorce"(the"area"closest"to"fully"
automated"generation"of" legal"documents),"torts"(where"case"valuation"tools"are"most"regularly"
in"use),"and"tax" (where"legal"analytics"and"prediction"tools"appear"m ost"advanced),"with"the"
rest"allocated"to"a"residual,"“general”"category."""
"
The"truth"is"that"none"of"these"approaches"will"be"mutually"exclusive"and"collectively"
exhaustive.""Instead,"Table"1"offers"a"mash-up"of"approaches"in"an"effort"t o"capture,"at"a"glance,"
the"main"contours"of"the"legal"tech"terrain.""The"resu lt"is"nine"categories"of"tools."
13
"See,"e.g.,"KEVIN"D."ASHLEY,"ARTIFICIAL"INTELLIGENCE"AND"LEGAL"ANALYTICS:"NEW"TOOLS"FOR"LAW"PRACT ICE"IN"THE"DIGITAL"
AGE"(2017)"[hereinafter"ASHLEY,"LEGAL"ANALYTICS];"Benjamin"Alarie"et"al.,"How'A rtificial'Intelligence'Will'Affect'the'Practice'
of'Law,"68"U."TORONTO"L."J."106"(2018)"[he reinaf ter"Alarie,"How'Artificial'Intelligence'Will];"Daniel"Ben-Ari"et"al.,"Artificial'
Intelligence' in'the'Practice'of'Law:'An'Analysis'and'Proof'of'Concept'Experiment,"23"RICH."J.L."&"TECH."2"(2017);"Kathryn"D."
Betts"&"Kyle"Jaep,"The'Dawn'of'Fully'Automated'Contract'Drafting:'Machine'Learning'Breathes'New'Life'Into'a'Decades-Old'
Promise,"15"DUKE"L."&"TECH."REV."216"(2017);"Maura"R."Grossman"&"Gordon"V."Cormack,"Technology-Assisted'Review'in'e-
Discovery'Can'Be'More'Effective'and'More'Efficient'than'Exhaustive'Manual'Review,"17"RICH."J."L."&"TECH."1"(2011);"David"
Lat,"How'Artificial'Intelligence'Is'Transforming'Legal'Research,"ABOVE"THE"LAW"(2018),"
https://abovethelaw.com/law2020/ how-artificial-intelligence-is-transforming-legal-research/."
14
"See"Daniel"W."Linna,"Jr.,"What'We'Know'and'Need'to'Know'About'Legal'Sta rtups,"67"S.C."L."REV."389,"402-03"
(2016)."
Electronic copy available at: https://ssrn.com/abstract=3551589
9
TABLE&1.&&“LEGAL&TECH”&AT&A&GLANCE&
Category*
End*User*
Description*
Litigation*Time*
Examples*
Lawyer&
Marketplace&a nd&
Matching&
lawyers,*
litigants,*
businesses*
Tools*that*match*lawyers*with*clients*or*facilitate*a*would-be*
client’s*evaluation*and*choice*of*po tential*counsel.**This*category*
also*includes*tools*that*assist*lawyers*with*business*and*client*
development*via*assessments*of*a*current*or*potential*client’s*past*
legal*entanglements*or*present*l egal*exposure.*
pre-filing*
Avvo,*Ravel,*Lexicata,*Atticus*
Legal&(Re)Search&
lawyers*
Tools*that*help*lawyers*locate*and*gather*relevant*ra w*materials*
(caselaw,*statutes,*regulations).*
pre-filing,*
throughout*
litigation *
CaseText,*Jud icata,*Ross*
Intelligence*
Outco me&Pre diction&
lawyers,*
businesses*
(including*
litigation*
financiers)*
Tools*that*predict*case*outcomes.**Predictions*can*be*jurisdiction-*
or*judge-specific* and*are*used*to*compare*fo rums*and*assess*case*
quality*a t*intake,*filing*(i.e.,*forum-shopping),*or,*once*litigation*is*
underway,*to*inform*the*strategic*litigation* and*s ettlemen t*calculus*
by*predicting*likely*damages,*how*the*assigned*judge*will*rule,*and*
the*likely*case*stage*and*time frame*for*resolution.***
pre-filing,*
throughout*
litigation *
Colossus,*Ravel,*CaseCrunch,*Lex*
Machina,*Gavelytics,*Blue*J*Legal*
Legal&Analytics&
lawyers,*
businesses*
Tools*that*perform*analytic*tasks*other*than*legal*search*and*
outcome*prediction,*including*citation*mappings,*judge-level*
analytics*(e.g.,*tailoring*arguments*to*a*specific*judge)*and*
document-level*analytics*(e.g.,*brief*evaluation).*
throughout*
litigation *
Ravel,*FastCase,*Gavelytics,*
Premonition,*CaseText*
Discovery&
lawyers*
Tools*that*support*or*supplant*the*process*of*identifying*relevant*
documents*and*tagging*them*for*privilege.*
discovery*phase*
Everlaw,*Relativity,*OpenTe xt,*
Exterro*
Document&
Assembly&and&
Creation&
lawyers,*
litigants *
Tools*that*draft*legal*documents,*f rom*simple*pleadings*(answers)*
to*more *complicated*ple adings*and*papers*(discovery*requests,*
motions,*and*e ven*simple*briefs) .*
pre-filing*and*
throughout*
litigation *
Legalmation,*Rocke rLawyer*
Practice&
Management&
lawyers*
Litigation*conduct*tools,*including*dashboards* that*manage*client*
intake,*organize*key*case*facts*and*docum ents ,*and*support* billing*
or*other*administrative*tasks.*
throughout*
litigation,*post-
litigation *
Needles*
Contract&
Management&and&
Analysis&
lawyers,*
businesses*
Tools*that*store,*analyze,*create,*and*monitor*performance*of*
contracts.*
pre-litigation*
Kira*Systems,*Ravn,*eBrevia,*
LexCheck,*KMStandards,*
UnitedLex*
DIY&Dispute&
Resolution,&Onlien&
Legal&Advice,&Cour t&
Vendo r&Services&
litigants,*
businesses*
Tools*that*facilitate*extra-legal*resolution*of*disputes;*also*tools*
that*provide *autom ated*(often*online)*legal*advic e *or*assist*
unrepresented*litigants*with*legal*proceedings.*
pre-filing,*
throughout*
litigation *
LegalZoom,*Ro cketLawyer,*
Modria,*Intraspexion,*Nolo*
Electronic copy available at: https://ssrn.com/abstract=3551589
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Electronic copy available at: https://ssrn.com/abstract=3551589
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CONCLUSION #
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Electronic copy available at: https://ssrn.com/abstract=3551589
