1
THE ANTARCTIC TREATY AT SIXTY YEARS:
PAST, PRESENT AND FUTURE
The Antarctic Treaty at Sixty Years: Past, Present and Future
DONALD R ROTHWELL
*
The 1959 Antarctic Treaty entered into force on 23 June 1961. It remains as a unique example of
an international law instrument providing a governance mechanism for a single continent. The
Treaty celebrates its 60
th
anniversary at a time when Antarctica is increasingly coming under the
spotlight with debate as to whether a Cold War treaty is capable of continuing to provide an
appropriate governance framework for Antarctica in the 21
st
century. The debate has raised
issues with respect to the ongoing interests and motivations of the seven Antarctic claimant states
(Argentina, Australia, Chile, France, New Zealand, Norway, United Kingdom), the role of
historically prominent non-claimant states such as the United States and the Russian Federation,
and the interests of others such as China. This article assesses whether the Treaty and the
associated ‘Antarctic Treaty System’ are sufficiently resilient to address the challenges
confronting Antarctic governance in the 2020s. These challenges extend to accommodating the
interests of the founding Treaty parties and subsequent Treaty parties with respect to their
Antarctic aspirations, and the ongoing interest of states in Antarctica’s mineral resources.
Particular attention is given to whether it remains possible for Treaty parties to request an art
XII ‘Review Conference’ and the treaty review mechanisms that exist within the 1991 Madrid
Protocol on Environmental Protection. If the Antarctic Treaty is not capable of amendment, the
options for treaty withdrawal are assessed.
CONTENTS
I Introduction ............................................................................................................... 1
II Antarctic Treaty ........................................................................................................ 4
III Antarctic Treaty System ........................................................................................... 6
IV Challenges at 60 Years ............................................................................................. 8
A Resource and Environmental Challenges ................................................... 10
B Interests of the Parties................................................................................. 13
V Review Conferences and Treaty Withdrawal ......................................................... 18
A Antarctic Treaty Review Conference ......................................................... 19
B Madrid Protocol Review Conference ......................................................... 21
C Treaty Law and Treaty Withdrawal ............................................................ 22
VI Concluding Remarks ............................................................................................... 24
I INTRODUCTION
Negotiations for The Antarctic Treaty (‘Antarctic Treaty’)
were concluded in
Washington on 1 December 1959 and the Treaty subsequently entered into force
on 23 June 1961. The Treaty remains as a unique example of an international law
instrument providing a governance mechanism for a single continent. The Treaty
celebrates 60 years since its entry into force in 2021 at a time when Antarctica,
and the polar regions more generally, are increasingly coming under the spotlight
*
Donald R Rothwell, Professor of International Law, ANU College of Law, ANU, Canberra,
Australia. The author acknowledges comments provided by Dr Alan Hemmings and
anonymous reviewers on an earlier version of this article and the research assistance of Kate
Renehan.