untitled

SDC GUIDELINES

ON GREEN

BIOTECHNOLOGY

(GBT)

Published by

Thematic and Technical Resources Department

Freiburgstrasse 130

CH-3003 Bern, Switzerland

Authors

This guide has been elaborated by Dr. Katharina Jenny, Natural

Resources and Environment (NRE) Division of SDC in collaboration

with Dr. Othmar Kaeppeli, Centre BATS, 4058 Basel, Switzerland.

Translations

Clara Wubbe, Transit TXT, CH-1701 Fribourg, Switzerland

Patrick Albert Saari, Quito, Ecuador

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CONTENTS

Why guidelines on Green Biotechnology? ......................................... 2

What these Guidelines contain .......................................................... 3

Green Biotechnology today and in the future ................................... 3

The current situation in developing countries 3

The controversy 4

Biosafety Regulatory Regimes and the Swiss Biosafety Framework 5

Challenges and Trends 5

Food Aid (GMO(s) in emergency operations) 6

SDC objectives and principles on Green Biotechnology ......................7

Definition of informed decision making 8

SDC contributions to Green Biotechnology ........................................ 9

Policy level 9

Implementation level 10

Service level 10

Guidelines, monitoring and adaptation ........................................... 11

Validity 11

Monitoring and adaptation 11

Abbreviations ..................................................................................12

Glossary ..........................................................................................13

References .......................................................................................16

Some references 16

Useful Resource Links 17

SDC GUIDELINES ON GREEN BIOTECHNOLOGY (GBT)

The terms “Green Biotechnology” (GBT) and “Plant

Biotechnology” are used synonymously, and in their

broadest sense relate to the use of modern biotech-

nology methods of crop plant improvement, ranging

from tissue culture to marker-assisted breeding. In a

narrower sense, the terms refer to the use of genetic

engineering in plant breeding. In what follows, we

concentrate on genetic engineering of plants, as this is

the most controversial issue in GBT.

Modern technologies in plant breeding have far-reach-

ing implications for trade (trade liberalization) and

access to and free exchange of breeding material

(intellectual property). Consequently, GBT is a pri-

mary focus in a range of international organizations

and conventions of which Switzerland is a member.

The World Intellectual Property Organisation (WIPO)

and the WTO deal with trade and Property Rights

issues, and the FAO, the International Plant Protection

Convention (IPPC), the Convention on Biological

Diversity (CBD) and the Cartagena Protocol on

Biosafety with biodiversity, biosafety and global

food issues. All these international entities promote

responsible applications of GBT and none oppose

GM crops.

Worldwide acreage of GM crops is increasing rapidly

and currently accounts for more than 7% of arable land.

More advanced developing countries are becoming

aware of the potential of GBT, and the increase in GM

crop acreage and GBT research investments in coun-

tries such as China, India, Argentina, Brazil and South

Africa is strong. On the other hand, many countries

receiving food aid are confronted with questions of

how to handle the import of GM food aid, especially

if there is no effective national regulatory framework

in place.

The above-mentioned countries are often role models

for the poorer SDC partner countries, and therefore

SDC staff may be confronted with a variety of GBT

issues. Over the last 10 years, SDC has been seen

as particularly active in fostering the international

multi-stakeholder debate on GBT. The present docu-

ment will help SDC staff to inform themselves about

the current state of the art, major controversial issues,

and SDC thinking, and thereby help them to formulate

appropriate contributions, either in a national or inter-

national context.

Box 1: Green Biotechnology – a controversial issue

Green Biotechnology is a much disputed but rapidly

emerging and far-reaching field of technology:

Proponents are convinced that genetic engineering

of plants holds an enormous potential for sustainable

increases in food production and quality.

Opponents believe that genetically modified (GM)

crops are harmful to the environment, that products

pose a threat to human health and biodiversity, and

that humans and the envi-ronment are sacrificed for

the sake of revenues and shareholder value in a

handful of global companies.

Key issues of the debate are: biosafety,

environmental sustainability, ethics, and real

benefits for developing countries.

Why guidelines on Green Biotechnology?

SDC GUIDELINES ON GREEN BIOTECHNOLOGY (GBT)

Overall, the guidelines describe SDC’s political com-

mitment (policy level), options for support to SDC’s

country offices and local partners (implementation

level), current and future programmes/projects and

linkages to other thematic priorities, and the process

of handling forthcoming requests for networking with

relevant partners and stakeholders in the respective

field (service level).

SDC’s position on GBT is developed in a stepwise

approach, consisting of two interlinked sets of infor-

mation tailored to different uses. These are:

The Guidelines, which summarise the basic

principles, controversial issues, and strategic

options, and

The Fact sheets, which consist of a primary set of

selected issues relevant for SDC staff at different

levels. They are regularly updated, based on new

developments in the political and technological

fields (see section G, service level).

•

Production of genetically modified crops today is

principally limited to varieties of soybean, maize,

canola and cotton. The bulk of these varieties boast

herbicide tolerance and disease resistance properties.

As of today, the commercial market is served by six

multinational research-based companies. GM crops

are grown by approximately 10.3 million farmers in

22 countries. In 2006, more than 38% of the global

GM crop area, equivalent to about 39 million hectares,

was grown in emerging developing countries, namely

China, India, Argentina, Brazil and South Africa. This

continuous trend has implications for the future adop-

tion of GM crops in other developing countries as well

as in industrialised countries.

Although it varies widely in degree, there is a signifi-

cant amount of research by public research institu-

tions going on, focussing on local crop improvements

for poor farmers and their communities, and industrial

crops according to national priorities. However, there

is a distinct lack of public sector capability in product

development and technology transfer to small farmers.

Lack of experience, capacity, and lack of funding to

develop products based on new research, including

but not limited to the ability required to elaborate and

impose bio-safety regulations, are reasons for this. As

a consequence, evidence of the overall benefits of

GM crops in developing countries is scarce, except

for some socio-economic studies on the impact of GM

cotton in Africa, India and China. However, it is antici-

pated that GM technology will soon be approved for

basic staples like rice in China and India.

Many countries have identified genetic modification

of crops as an option to meet their agricultural devel-

opment priorities, provided the GM technologies

address hunger and malnutrition and enhance local

technological capabilities.

However, some countries have taken strong positions

against the use of GMOs and restricted their use in

various ways. They consider that the potential ben-

efits are uncertain and the risks not sufficiently known.

These are the issues around which the current debate

is taking place.

What these Guidelines contain

Green Biotechnology today and in the future

The current situation in developing countries

SDC GUIDELINES ON GREEN BIOTECHNOLOGY (GBT)

The controversy

In the box 2, the principal points of contention are

listed, with counter-positioning of opposing opinions

about certain aspects of Green Biotechnology.

Countries interested in using GM technology in agri-

culture need to develop policies and regulatory sys-

tems that take account of the issues and concerns in a

manner that is feasible in their specific contexts. Many

countries are setting up biosafety regulatory frame-

works with international support under the scheme

provided by the Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety.

However, even where developing countries have a

biosafety regulatory system in place, the main dif-

ficulty arises in implementation. Often, national

institutions are too weak to enforce regulations.

Requirements such as assessing the socio-economic

impacts on rural communities pose a challenge in

themselves. National capacity-building efforts very

much depend on close collaboration with donor

communities and selected institutions in the industrial-

ized world, including the CGIAR.

Box 2: Genetically modified crops and development – elements of the controversy

GM crops are vital to feed the world;

risks depend on the use of technology

and can be controlled.

Versus

World hunger is a poverty issue; GM crops are not

essential in alleviating poverty as they are associated

with many risks.

Benefits to farmers

Increased yields of local crops; marginal

soils can be cropped.

Versus

GM technology will only be available for in-dustrial

crops; local crops unattractive to companies; GM crops

are not adapted to technological level of developing

world.

Less dependence on products from

industrialized countries (e.g. fertilizers,

herbicides, pesticides).

Versus

Increased costs for small and subsistence farmers: New

seeds every year; dependence on complementary

herbicides and pesticides.

Decrease in the use of herbicides and

pesticides.

Dependence on multinationals for seeds; reduction in the

use of herbicides and pesticides uncertain.

Risks to sustainable development of local communities

Beneficial to development of local

communities through marketing of

surplus production and secondary

businesses.

Versus

Negative impact on livelihood of local communities

owing to technology not adapted to small farmers’

needs; impossible to qualify for high-price markets

(organics, fair trade).

Cropping systems and environmental risks

GM technology can be made available

for minor crops and local food crops.

Versus

Loss of control of genetic resources and locally improved

varieties.

Coexistence with alternative agricultural

practices possible.

Displacement of local crops and agricultural practices;

coexistence impossible.

Environmental and human safety granted

with specific measures.

Uncertainty about environmental and longterm health

effects (non-conformity with precautionary principle).

Safety issues comparable to those of

conventional breeding.

New risks with GM crops; loss of crop plant diversity;

pollution of centres of origin.

SDC GUIDELINES ON GREEN BIOTECHNOLOGY (GBT)

Challenges and Trends

The issues and concerns surrounding GM technology are

complex, involving scientific, social, ethical, trade and

political aspects. The processes of carefully balancing

and weighing the potential benefits against the possible

risks of GM crops, and arriving at a decision to approve

or reject a particular application of GBT, presumes the exist-

ence of relevant and adequate capacity in several specific

areas of knowledge. With some exceptions, few officially

approved guidelines or policy papers exist on formal deci-

sion making.

International dialogue has proposed the use of an

“informed decision-making process” to decide on

the application of GBT. Such efforts are part of the

endeavour to redirect biotechnology to address the

needs of low-income families in developing countries

and to involve all stakeholders in the decision-making

process. Biotechnology is considered one of the

important tools in a larger portfolio of science

and technology approaches to further sustainable

development.

In accordance with this approach, the acceptance of

agricultural technologies based on genetic engineering

should depend on the expression of local needs, involve

a thorough risk-benefit assessment, and be adapted to

available capacities. Local stakeholders must be part of

the decision-making process.

Biosafety Regulatory Regimes and the Swiss Biosafety Framework

The most important international regulatory frame-

work for Green Biotechnology are the FAO Codex

Alimentarius, which sets standards for food safety,

and the Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety. The

Protocol regulates the transboundary movement of

GMOs only, and calls on governments to establish

their own national biosafety regulation. The focus is

on regulating the import of GMOs into a signatory

country, and requires the advance informed agree-

ment of the country’s authority. Consequently, it has

an immediate effect on trade and trade related issues.

Its guiding principle is the precautionary approach.

This means that if the risks to the environment are seri-

ous, and understanding of those risks is inadequate,

then steps should immediately be taken to minimise

any possible damage, even if this means abandoning

the project. As of December 2006, 137 nations, the

majority of which are developing nations, had signed

the Protocol or expressed their intention to do so.

Switzerland has one of the world’s most restrictive

biosafety regulatory frameworks. Its implementation is

ensured through long-term liability for damages result-

ing from biotechnology applications, and through

requiring comprehensive risk assessment according

to the precautionary approach. Two federal com-

mittees – the Swiss Ethics Committee on Non-human

Gene Technology (ECNH), and the Swiss Expert

Committee for Biosafety (SECB) – as well as environ-

mental organisations have the right to appeal release

permissions. With regard to commercial cultivation of

GM crops, Swiss policy is bound to a five-year mora-

torium that was approved by Swiss voters in a national

referendum in 2005. The moratorium does not, how-

ever, exclude biotechnological research and import

of genetically modified foods. With this regulatory

background, Switzerland has accumulated valuable

experience in a complex field, which can be used to

advise and assist developing countries in establishing

their own regulatory structures.

SDC GUIDELINES ON GREEN BIOTECHNOLOGY (GBT)

Food Aid (GMO(s) in emergency operations)

The US is the largest producer of GM crops. In 2005,

the percentage of GM soybeans accounted for 80

percent of all soy planted and 50 percent of all GM

maize. Moreover, the US food system does not sepa-

rate GM and non-GM crops. This is important, as the

US provides 60 percent of all food aid donations,

mostly made up of home-grown wheat, maize and

soy-beans and channelled through the World Food

Programme (WFP).

By mid 2002, this issue was the subject of a public

debate following the rejection of food aid by some

recipient countries in Southern Africa in the middle of

the worst food shortage faced in 50 years. Recipient

countries justified their response by citing concerns

with regard to the safety of such food, the lack of

a national regulatory framework, unintentional intro-

duction of GM crop varieties into the region as a

result of plantings or spillage of the grains provid-

ed as food aid, the related threat of losing export

opportunities to the EU, and to a lesser extent the

infringement of property rights regulations. Given

the growing corporate concentration in the agricul-

tural biotechnology sector and its close ties with spe-

cific government agencies, fears were compounded

by the widespread perception that the introduction

of GM crops as food aid serves donor countries’

domestic economic and political interests.

The situation in Southern Africa has prompted the

WFP to set a policy on donations of GM food. It

is WFP policy that all donated food meets the food

safety standards of both the donor and the recipient

countries, and all applicable international standards,

guidelines and recommendations. WFP operates

on the principle that all governments have the right

to choose to accept or reject GM food aid and, if

accepted, set terms for the import of such food, exer-

cising their sovereign right under the Cartagena

Protocol. For example, if a recipient country requires

milling to prevent the use of GM food aid as seed

or, similarly, if a donor places restrictions on the pur-

chase of GM food aid with a cash donation, the WFP

fully honours these conditions.

In March 2006, the parties to the Cartagena

Protocol approved a requirement for labelling of

cross-border shipments containing living modified

organisms (LMOs) in products for direct use as food

or feed, or for processing. Under the new agreement,

products that have been clearly identified and sepa-

rated as transgenics will have to carry the label ‘con-

tains LMOs’. The US, however, as a non-party to the

Protocol, may provide this information on a voluntary

basis only.

Based on lessons learned in Southern Africa, the

WFP also encourages and supports recipient coun-

tries in improving their national analytical capacities

and biosafety framework, placing them in a position

to carry out their own context-specific analyses of

GM food. In addition, the WFP increasingly seeks

alternative non-GM commodities or funding from all

potential sources. It also anticipates that the neces-

sary food can often be procured within the country

concerned.

SDC GUIDELINES ON GREEN BIOTECHNOLOGY (GBT)

Farmers in developing countries face many problems

that crops and agricultural technology alone can-

not solve, such as political and socio-economic con-

straints, unequal benefit sharing, lack of infrastructure,

management and husbandry, access to resources

including good soil and water, and degradation of

the natural resource base. Technology improvement

is only one component, but often one that yields early

returns to farmers. In this context, plant biotechnology

is an additional tool.

SDC shares the view that GBT, including GM technol-

ogy, can never fully replace conventional breed-

ing, but it can be an important tool in improving

plant-breeding programmes.

SDC recognises that GM crops might be able to

improve agricultural productivity sustainably

SDC objectives and principles on Green Biotechnology

SDC’s mandate includes advancing sustainable agri-

culture for food security, livelihood improvement,

and pro-poor growth. Achieving MDG1, namely

halving the proportion of people who suffer from hun-

ger and halving poverty, depends to a large extent

on agricultural development. To meet this goal, SDC

pursues the following objectives (adapted from SDC

agriculture policy, 1999):

Box 3: Objectives of SDC agricultural policy

To contribute to the production of sufficient, safe and

nutritious food for an increasing world population

and to make it affordable for the poor.

To produce food in an environmentally friendly

way, namely by using natural resources without

undermining the developmental and environmental

needs of present and future generations.

To ensure that all – men and women – have

equal access to natural resources, services and

legal entitlement, and that traditional knowledge

is recognised by appropriate benefit-sharing

mechanisms and participatory research and

extension.

and enhance local and national food security

with direct benefits for rural small holdings. For

this to happen, governments in developing countries

should commit substantial resources to public sec-

tor efforts in GBT. These investments should favour

research and product development for the benefit

of the poor. Often public-private partnerships are a

good strategy to ensure sufficient levels of investment

and know-how. The international development com-

munity has an important role to play in supporting

partner countries in building the necessary capacity

to develop, manage and use modern biotechnology

in a safe and sustainable manner.

The desirability of GBT applications will be assessed

in light of the following core principles (Box 4):

SDC GUIDELINES ON GREEN BIOTECHNOLOGY (GBT)

Box 4: SDC core principles for involvement in GBT

Food security: Contributing to food security is

part of the SDC mandate. If GBT allows important

advances in this regard, SDC can support its

application. The international agricultural research

system (CGIAR) remains the principle partner for

strengthening knowledge, innovation and capacity

building. Investments in GBT should form part of an

integrated and comprehensive public agricultural

research and development programme that gives

priority to the poor.

Focus on smallholder farming systems, rural

livelihoods, and gender: The livelihoods of

smallholder farmers have to be safeguarded. SDC

will pay due attention to the impact of the agronomic

and trade consequences of GM crops on smallholder

livelihoods.

National sovereignty: GM crops are only one of

many approaches available to contribute to food

security. SDC respects and defends developing

countries’ sovereignty in assessing the desirability

of GM crops within the context of their own local

needs and priorities. SDC enhances the ability of

partner countries to take informed decisions (see

definition below). This includes paying due attention

to alternatives and the appraisal of opportunities,

potential benefits and potential risks associated with

the development and application of GBTs and the

involvement of all important stakeholders.

Food aid: SDC respects the sovereignty of individual

states and adheres to the policy of the WFP, namely

that GM food aid is offered only if the recipient

country has given its informed consent. SDC supports,

whenever applicable, food aid contributions

purchased locally or regionally to strengthen local

production and markets. According to the principles

of the Cartagena Protocol, it also supports recipient

countries in their national biosafety capacity building,

so as to enable them to test GMOs independently on

a context-specific basis.

Non-exclusion: Access to plant genetic resources for

local communities will be safe-guarded. Traditional

knowledge, and specifically the role of women in

managing biodiversity, will be taken into account.

The benefits accruing from the conservation of

plant genetic resources in local systems will be

shared fairly and equitably. SDC insists on non-

discriminating intellectual property rights and

transparent information for all.

Box 5: Partners’ own risk assessments

SDC supports a differentiated position with respect

to GBT. Tenability of particular plant biotechnology

applications should be assessed in an informed

decision-making process at national level with the

goal of promoting safe, sustainable and development-

compatible plant biotechnology applications. The

choices, however, must be made by policy makers in

the partner countries.

Definition of informed decision making

An informed decision takes into account all available

information from multidimensional risk-benefit assess-

ments (e.g. safety, economic, social, environmental,

ethical, cultural and development relevant aspects),

considers technology alternatives (including inaction),

is consistent with pertinent regulations and internal

guidelines, and includes all major stakeholders.

SDC GUIDELINES ON GREEN BIOTECHNOLOGY (GBT)

The development of biotechnological applications

takes place in a multidimensional environment, from

policy setting through research to farm practice and

vice versa. To ensure the safe development and appli-

cation of GM technologies, a country must display

capacities ranging from R&D in a number of spe-

cialised areas, including agronomy, nutrition, social

sciences and legal disciplines and biosafety regula-

tory regimes, to GM-specific policies and instruments

to implement them. SDC can support the development

of local capacities at all these levels. Given the broad

spectrum of support which may be requested, SDC is

convinced that contributions to GBT must be addressed

in a harmonised manner. Single donor initiatives that

are not related to larger programmes of partner coun-

tries should normally be avoided. In its contribution to

SDC contributions to Green Biotechnology

GBT, SDC’s focus is on strengthening partners’ capacity

to arrive at informed decisions for approval or rejec-

tion of GM technologies. It is SDC’s understanding

that the partner has either started the process of estab-

lishing a biosafety regulatory regime or demonstrated

its willingness to do so.

SDC will give support primarily in areas where it has

a comparative advantage in doing so. These can stem

from existing programmes established with national and

international partners, and in particular the CGIAR, or

from novel arrangements in public-private partnerships.

SDC is active at the policy, implementation and ser-

vice level with similar intensity. Particular attention is

given to linking experiences from all three levels.

Policy level

ex-situ germplasm conservation in perpetuity. SDC

will continue to maintain close information exchange

with the Swiss lead agencies of the CBD and the

Cartagena Protocol (FOEN), and of the International

Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources (FOAG). SDC

contributes to policy dialogue through expertise and

advice, strengthens the negotiation interests of devel-

oping country partners, and supports their participa-

tion in specific meetings as well as their programmes.

Objectives: Contribute to the creation of an interna-

tionally recognized crop research and development

system with a specific focus on capacity building,

biosafety assessment, access to technology and plant

genetic resources, taking into account the conserva-

tion and use of plant genetic resources as well as the

fair and equitable sharing of the benefits from the use

of these resources.

Partners and focal areas: SDC aspires to be a lead-

ing partner in the implementation of the Global Crop

Diversity Trust, a system that has been put in place for

Assist partner countries in policy and priority setting

Objectives: Accompany and advise partner institu-

tions in their evaluation processes for GBT introduction;

facilitate the safe application of GBT.

Partners and focal areas: For this purpose, SDC will

work primarily through recognized inter-national part-

ners such as the Bioversity International (IPGRI) and

the International Food Policy Research Institute (IFPRI)

of the CGIAR. Exceptionally, upon specific request by

the partner country and after careful evaluation of the

local context, such support may be directly managed

by SDC’s Country offices.

Strengthen technical dialogue with developing countries

Objectives: Make available network knowledge for

the identification of desirable applications of GBT and

assurance of comprehensive project management.

Partners and focal areas: Such dialogue, e.g. on

risk-benefit analyses for GM crops and identification

Engage in international and multilateral platforms

of research partners for key areas, can be delegated

to international partners, such as the CGIAR institu-

tions or Swiss-based partners such as IUED, WTI, ZIL,

SHL, FAL, and the EPFL. SDC plays a facilitating role.

SDC GUIDELINES ON GREEN BIOTECHNOLOGY (GBT)

Implementation level

Invest in capacity building for regulatory competence, biosafety and sustainability assessment

Objectives: Contribute to improved implementation

and oversight of international agreements such as

the Cartagena Protocol and the establishment of

National Biosafety Frameworks.

Partners and focal areas: Capacity strengthening is

designed for national partners in the public research

sector in SDC’s priority regions. This includes support

for international research linked with national capac-

ity building in the area of risk-benefit assessment and

regulation. Areas of collaboration include develop-

ment of practicable risk-benefit assessment tools and

improvement of the scientific bases in public sector

institutions (e.g. best practice guidelines, training,

biosafety research, socio-economic analyses).

Support the innovation process in public agricultural research

Objectives: Objectives: Promotion of research agendas

that serve smallholder needs and the strengthening of

international agricultural research.

Partners and priority areas: SDC supports the CGIAR,

CABI, FAO and other national/regional partners in the

field. This includes advancement of integrated pest and

sustainable crop management systems, with emphasis

on orphan commodities. SDC participates in the rele-

vant bodies and committees; ensuring that research will

lead to development.

Explore the opportunity to work with the private sector

Objectives: Application of private sector findings to

benefit poor farmers and facilitate access to propri-

etary technologies and knowledge.

SDC recognises the potential to mobilise science and

other product development know-how which princi-

pally resides in the private sector for applications that

may benefit poor farmers. SDC will support appropri-

ate mechanisms to facilitate interaction of the public

and private sectors to bring pro-poor technologies and

products to the fields. This includes facilitating access to

proprietary technologies and knowledge by exploring

innovative cooperation in technology management such

as development of new licensing mechanisms.

Service levels

Most SDC country programmes are in some way com-

mitted to rural income generation, livelihood support,

agricultural value chain enhancement, or the promo-

tion of sustainable agricultural production systems

as key strategies of poverty reduction and pro-poor

growth. In fragile states, emergency food aid is also

repeatedly needed. In this context, SDC staff are con-

fronted with questions concerning SDC’s position with

respect to GM crops and foods.

There is no general set of answers to country-related

questions. Above all, safety, sustainability and the

different dimensions of informed choices need to be

assessed in view of local needs and constraints on

a case-by-case basis. The nature of issues will vary

considerably between crop varieties, pests, abiotic

stresses, and markets.

The NRE-Division of SDC, together with its network

of specialised international and national partner

institutions involved in responsible assessment and

application of GBT, offers policy, institutional and

technical advice, capacity building, and support

services to country offices based on individual

requests.

The fact sheets form an integrated part of NRE’s serv-

ice provision. The initial set covers information about:

Intellectual Property Rights,

the Concept of Informed Decision Making,

Innovations in GBT and Technological Trends,

GMOs and Food Aid,

Glossary Green Biotechnology and

References/Useful Links,

Swiss and International Regulations,

Positions of Other Organisations, and

SDC-supported Activities in GBT.

Additional topics will be covered based on request

from SDC’s country programmes or other stakehold-

ers, or based on new developments in the political or

technological field.

•

SDC GUIDELINES ON GREEN BIOTECHNOLOGY (GBT)

Guidelines, monitoring and adaptation

Validity

The guidelines will initially be valid for five years; the

fact sheets are regularly updated and supplemented

by selected issues.

Monitoring and adaptation

SDC’s NRE Division is the unit responsible for follow-

up on the policy process and for facilitating service

and advisory / capacity building support in partner

countries in cooperation with the country offices.

Revisions of the guidelines will be considered in cases

of major context change.

SDC GUIDELINES ON GREEN BIOTECHNOLOGY (GBT)

Abbreviations

BATS Center for Biosafety and Sustainability, www.bats.ch

Bioversity

International

International Plant Genetic Resources Institute,

www.bioversityinternational.org

Bt Bacillus thuringiensis

CABI Center for Applied Biosciences, www.cabi.org

CBD UN Convention on Biological Diversity, www.biodiv.org

CGIAR Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research, www.cgiar.org

CPB Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety, www.biodiv.org/biosafety

ECNH Swiss Ethics Committee on Non-human Gene Technology,

http://www.ekah.ch/buwal/eng/fachgebiete/fg_ekah/index.html

EPFL Ecole Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne, www.epfl.ch

FAL Swiss Federal Research Station for Agroecology and Agriculture, Reckenholz, www.reckenholz.ch

FAO Food and Agriculture Organisation of the United Nations, www.fao.org

FOAG Federal Office for Agriculture, www.blw.admin.ch/index.html?lang=en

FOEN Federal Office for the Environment, http://www.bafu.admin.ch

GBT Green Biotechnology

GEF Global Environment Fund, www.globalenvironmentfund.com

GM / OGM Genetically Modified / Genetically Modified Organism

GMO ERA Genetically Modified Organisms Environmental Risk Assessment, www.gmo-guidelines.info

IFPRI International Food Policy Research Institute, www.ifpri.org

IPPC International Plant Protection Convention, www.ippc.int

IPR Intellectual Property Rights, www.ipr-helpdesk.org

IUED Institut Universitaire d’Etudes du Développement, Genève CH, www.unige.ch/iued

LMOs Living Modified Organisms

MDG Millennium Development Goals, www.un.org/millenniumgoals

SECB Swiss Expert Committee for Biosafety, http://www.efbs.ch/buwal/eng/fachgebiete/fg_efbs/start.html

SDC Swiss Agency for Development and Cooperation, www.deza.ch

SHL Swiss College for Agriculture, www.shl.bfh.ch

R&D Research & Development

UNEP United Nations Environmental Programme, www.unep.org

WFP World Food Programme, www.wfp.org

WHO World Health Organisation, www.who.org

WIPO World Intellectual Property Organization, www.wipo.in

WTI World Trade Institute, www.wti.org

WTO World Trade Organisation, www.wto.org

ZIL Centre for International Agriculture, www.zil.ethz.ch

SDC GUIDELINES ON GREEN BIOTECHNOLOGY (GBT)

Glossary

Biodiversity

The number and variety of plants, animals and other organisms that exist in nature.

Biotechnology

Technological application that uses biological systems, living organisms, or derivatives thereof,

to make or modify products or processes for specific use (Definition by the CBD).

Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt)

A naturally occurring bacteria that produces a protein toxic to certain types of insects. The gene inside the

bacteria that is responsible for producing the toxin – the Bt gene – can be used as biological control agent

against insects and as a transgene in GM crops, thereby making them more resistant to the corresponding insect.

Disease resistance

The capacity of a plant, usually determined by one or a few genes, to suppress or retard the

activities of a disease-causing organism, usually a fungal, bacterial or viral pathogen.

DNA

The biochemical substance from which the genetic material of cells is made. DNA

has a thread-like structure. The DNA in a plant or animal cell is in several long

lengths called chromosomes, each of which contains many genes.

Food security

According to the FAO, a state in which all people at all times have physical, social and economic access to

sufficient, safe and nutritious food that meets their dietary needs and food preferences for a healthy life.

Genetic engineering

…is also known as recombinant DNA techniques. It is a branch of modern biotechnology. It

entails a range of techniques used by scientists in an attempt to control or modify genes

or, most controversially, move them between two unrelated species. Plants that have had

the sequences of their genes changed are called genetically modified (GM) crops.

Genetically modified (GM) crops

Crop plant whose genetic makeup has been scientifically altered by genetic

modification to produce desirable new traits or eliminate undesirable ones.

Gene

A linear fragment of DNA which contains the information needed to make proteins.

Genome

The entire complement of DNA (genes plus non-coding sequences) present in most cells of an organism.

SDC GUIDELINES ON GREEN BIOTECHNOLOGY (GBT)

Genomics

The study of an organism’s genome and the use of the genes. It deals with the systematic use of genome

information, associated with other data, to provide answers in biology, medicine, and industry.

Germplasm

Tissue from which new plants can be grown, for example seeds, pollen or

leaves. Even a few cells may be sufficient to culture a new plant.

Green Biotechnology, GBT

…is modern biotechnology applied to agricultural processes. Green Biotechnology and Plant

Biotechnology are used as synonyms and relate to crop plant modification involving genetic

engineering. An example would include a crop plant genetically engineered to grow under specific

environmental conditions or in the presence (or absence) of certain agricultural chemicals.

Herbicide

A substance that kills plants and is used to control weeds. Herbicides vary in their specificity. Some

kill a broad spectrum of plant species, while others kill only specific species or groups of species.

Herbicide tolerance

This allows a plant to tolerate a herbicide that would otherwise kill it. This can be achieved

by means of either genetic modification or conventional plant breeding.

Intellectual property

An intangible form of personal property. Copyrights, patents, and trademarks are examples

of intellectual property. Intellectual property rights enable owners to select who may access

and use their property, to protect it from unauthorised use and to recover income.

Introgression

The placing of a transgenic event into an established plant variety by traditional

breeding, perhaps assisted by marker-assisted breeding.

Marker Assisted Breeding (MAB)

Molecular Breeding

Molecular breeding is a tool that involves the use of DNA markers for genes

in combination with physical measurement of traits to accelerate selection in

plant breeding programmes. Also called marker-assisted breeding.

Modern Biotechnology

Term used to distinguish newer applications of biotechnology, such as genetic

engineering and cell fusion from more conventional methods such as breeding, or

fermentation. (Definition adopted from the Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety).

SDC GUIDELINES ON GREEN BIOTECHNOLOGY (GBT)

Plant biotechnology

See Green Biotechnology

Precautionary principle

A rule that permits governments to impose restrictions on otherwise legitimate

activities, if there is a perceived risk of damage to the environment or to human

health. There is no agreed definition, hence its interpretation is disputed.

Resistance

The ability to withstand abiotic or biotic stress, or a toxic substance. Resistance,

relative to susceptibility, is genetically determined. Forms of biotic resistance

are insect resistance, bacterial resistance, and fungal resistance.

Subsidiarity

According to the principle of subsidiarity, within a system of governance, decisions should be taken at the

lowest possible level, provided that goals such as safety and environmental protection are secured.

Subsistence farmers

Farmers who mostly grow food for home consumption, with any surplus typically being sold locally.

Transgene

An isolated gene sequence used to transform an organism. The transgene may

have been derived from a different species than that of the recipient.

Transgenic

An organism that has had genes from another organism put into

its genome through recombinant DNA techniques.

Transgenic event

Each time a transgene is introduced to a plant cell, the transgenic event created is slightly

different, unfolding different properties, and perhaps regulatory consideration.

Tissue culture

The growth of cells, tissues or organs in a nutrient medium under sterile conditions.

Plant tissue culture relies on the fact that all plant cells have the ability to generate a whole

plant (totipotency). Single cells (protoplasts), pieces of leaves, or roots can often be used to

generate a new plant on culture media, given the required nutrients and plant hormones.

SDC GUIDELINES ON GREEN BIOTECHNOLOGY (GBT)

Some References

Please note: Additional as well as issue-specific references will be provided in the Fact Sheets

Alliance Sud (2005) Gentechnologie bekämpft den Hunger nicht. Global+, Dokument 8,

www.alliancesud.ch/deutsch/files/D_PnDt8.pdf

Bhagavan M. R. and Virgin I (2004) Agricultural Biotechnology in Developing Countries.

A Briefing Paper for Sida. SEI Stockholm Environment Institute. ISBN 91 88714 92 6,

http://63.166.104.204/sei/seipubs.nsf/Lookup/FBE9E0D1B9A1DC8D41256EFB004AC820/

$file/Agricultural_Biotechlowres.pdf

Cohen, J. I. (2005), Poorer nations turn to publicly developed GM crops. Nature Biotechnology 23 (No 1), 27–33,

www.ifpri.org/pubs/articles/2005/naturebiotech.pdf

DANIDA (2002) Assessment of Potentials and Constraints for Development and Use of Plant Biotechnology in Relation to Plant

Breeding and Crop Production in Developing Countries. Royal Danish Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Copenhagen, Denmark.

DANIDA Working Paper.

www.icsu.org/1_icsuscience/GMO/html/DANIDA%20Biblio%20Entry.htm

FAO (2004) The State of Food and Agriculture 2003-2004. Agricultural Biotechnology: Meeting the needs of the poor?

www.fao.org/docrep/006/Y5160E/Y5160E00.HTM

Inforesources (2006) Biotechnology and Food Security. Focus No 1/06 (e, f, sp)

www.inforesources.ch/pdf/focus06_1_e.pdf

James C. (2006) Global Status of Commercialized Biotech/GMCrops: 2006. ISAAA Brief No 35.

International Service for the Acquisition of Agri-Biotech Applications, USA,

www.isaaa.org

Masood E. (2005) The GM debate – Who Decides? An analysis of decision-making about genetically modified crops in

developing countries. Panos Report No 49. Published by the Panos Institute, UK.

www.panos.org.uk/PDF/reports/gmdebate_report.pdf

Nuffield Council on Bioethics (2004) The use of genetically modified crops in developing countries. Published by the Nuffield

Council on Bioethics; ISBN 1 904384 07 2

www.nuffieldbioethics.org/go/ourwork/gmcrops/publication_313.html

Omamo S. W. and Grebmer von K. (2005) Biotechnology, Agriculture, and Food Security in Southern Africa. Published by

IFPRI Washington D.C., Food, Agriculture, and Natural Resources Policy Analysis Network. ISBN 0-89629-737-3,

www.ifpri.org/pubs/books/oc46/oc46toc.pdf

Persley G. J. (2003) New Genetics, Food and Agriculture: Scientific Discoveries –

Societal Dilemmas. International Council for Science. ISBN 0-930357-57-4

www.icsu.org/2_resourcecentre

Qaim M. and Matuschke I. (2005) Impacts of genetically modified crops in developing countries:

a survey. Quarterly Journal of International Agriculture 44 (No 3), 207227

Sanchez P. A. and Swaminathan M. S. (2005) Cutting World Hunger in Half. Science 307, 357–359

•

References

SDC GUIDELINES ON GREEN BIOTECHNOLOGY (GBT)

Swiss Ethics Committee on Non-Human Gene technology (ECNH) (2005) Gene technology and Developing Countries.

http://www.ekah.ch/buwal/eng/fachgebiete/fg_ekah/publikationen/broschueren/index.html

Swissaid (2005) Position Paper ‘Genetic Engineering in Agriculture’.

www.swissaid.ch/news/e/documents/symposium_doku_e_000.pdf

WFP Policy on Donations of Foods derived from Biotechnology (GM/ Biotech Foods) (2002).

www.wfp.org/eb/docs/2002/wfp011823~2.pdf

World Bank (2003) Biosafety Regulation: A review of International Approaches, Published by the Word Bank Agriculture &

Rural Development Department, Report No. 26028.

www.worldbank.org/reference/

Useful Resource Links

Checkbiotech: Up-to-date news articles and information on agricultural biotechnology.

www.checkbiotech.org

Ethics.

www.nuffieldbioethics.org

FAO: Biotechnology in Food and Agriculture

www.fao.org/biotech/index.asp

Global Knowledge Center on Crop Biotechnology.

www.isaaa.org/kc

GreenFacts: Scientific Facts on Genetically Modified Crops

www.greenfactsorg/gmo/index.htm

SciDevNet: Dossier Agri-biotech.

www.scidev.net/dossiers/index.cfm?fuseaction=dossierItem&Dossier=6

UNEP-GEF:Biosafety Projects.

www.scidev.net/dossiers/index.cfm?fuseaction=dossierItem&Dossier=6

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