Heat energy gained during melting . . . . . . . . . . 334 J/g
Heat energy released during freezing . . . . . . . . 334 J/g
Heat energy gained during vaporization . . . . . 2260 J/g
Heat energy released during condensation . . . 2260 J/g
Density at 3.98°C . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.0 g/mL
New York State Fossil
2011 EDITION
This edition of the Earth Science Reference Tables should be used in the
classroom beginning in the 2011–12 school year. The first examination for
which these tables will be used is the January 2012 Regents Examination in
Physical Setting/Earth Science.
The University of the State of New York • THE STATE EDUCATION DEPARTMENT • Albany, New York 12234 • www.nysed.gov
Reference Tables for
Physical Setting/EARTH SCIENCE
Eccentricity =
distance between foci
length of major axis
Gradient =
change in field value
distance
Density =
mass
volume
Rate of change =
change in value
time
Equations
RADIOACTIVE
ISOTOPE
DISINTEGRATION HALF-LIFE
(years)
Carbon-14
Potassium-40
Uranium-238
Rubidium-87
C
14
K
40
U
238
Rb
87
N
14
Pb
206
Sr
87
5.7 × 10
3
1.3 × 10
9
4.5 × 10
9
4.9 × 10
10
Ar
40
Ca
40
Specific Heats of Common Materials
Radioactive Decay Data
Properties of Water
Average Chemical Composition
of Earth’s Crust, Hydrosphere, and Troposphere
MATERIAL SPECIFIC HEAT
(Joules/gram • °C)
Liquid water 4.18
Solid water (ice) 2.11
Water vapor 2.00
Dry air 1.01
Basalt 0.84
Granite 0.79
Iron 0.45
Copper 0.38
Lead 0.13
ELEMENT
(symbol)
CRUST HYDROSPHERE TROPOSPHERE
Percent by mass Percent by volume Percent by volume Percent by volume
Oxygen (O) 46.10 94.04 33.0 21.0
Silicon (Si) 28.20 0.88
Aluminum (Al) 8.23 0.48
Iron (Fe) 5.63 0.49
Calcium (Ca) 4.15 1.18
Sodium (Na) 2.36 1.11
Magnesium (Mg) 2.33 0.33
Potassium (K) 2.09 1.42
Nitrogen (N) 78.0
Hydrogen (H) 66.0
Other 0.91 0.07 1.0 1.0
Eurypterus remipes
Physical Setting/Earth Science Reference Tables — 2011 Edition 2
Generalized Landscape Regions of New York State
A
p
p
a
l
a
c
h
i
a
n
P
l
a
t
e
a
u
(
U
p
l
a
n
d
s
)
Interior Lowlands
Grenville Province
(Highlands)
New England Province
(Highlands)
A
t
l
a
n
t
i
c
C
o
a
s
t
a
l
P
l
a
i
n
Allegheny Plateau
Erie-Ontario Lowlands
(Plains)
Tug Hill
Plateau
Adirondack
Mountains
Lake Erie
Lake Ontario
Interior
Lowlands
St. Lawrence Lowlands
C
h
a
m
p
l
a
i
n
L
o
w
l
a
n
d
s
Hudson Highlands
Manhattan Prong
The Catskills
Taconic Mountains
H
u
d
s
o
n
-
M
o
h
a
w
k
L
o
w
l
a
n
d
s
Newark
Lowlands
Major geographic province boundary
Landscape region boundary
State boundary
International boundary
Key
N
S
WE
02040
02040
60 80
Kilometers
Miles
10 30 50
elevation 175 m
LAKE
43°
79°
78° 77°
44°
76°
45°
75°
74°
73°
45°
44°
43°
42°
73°
72°
41°
73°
40°30'
73°30'
74°
41°
75°
76°77°78°
79°
42°
elevation 75 m
LAKE ONTARIO
JAMESTOWN
BUFFALO
ELMIRA
ITHACA
BINGHAMTON
SLIDE MT.
KINGSTON
NEW YORK
CITY
NIAGARA FALLS
ROCHESTER
SYRACUSE
UTICA
OSWEGO
OLD FORGE
VERMONT
PLATTSBURGH
MT. MARCY
MASSENA
St. Lawrence River
Hudson
River
Mohawk
River
River
Susquehanna
Delaware
River
FINGER LAKES
CONNECTICUT
NEW JERSEY
PENNSYLVANIA
LAKE
ATLANTIC OCEAN
Miles
Kilometers
Genesee River
LONG ISLAND
RIVERHEAD
River
Hudson
WATERTOWN
05040302010
080604020
MASSACHUSETTS
41°
ALBANY
ERIE
L
O
N
G
I
S
L
A
N
D
S
O
U
N
D
C
H
A
M
P
L
A
I
N
Physical Setting/Earth Science Reference Tables — 2011 Edition 3
modified from
GEOLOGICAL SURVEY
NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM
1989
N
i
a
g
a
r
a
R
i
v
e
r
GEOLOGIC PERIODS AND ERAS IN NEW YORK
CRETACEOUS and PLEISTOCENE (Epoch) weakly consolidated to unconsolidated gravels, sands, and clays
LATE TRIASSIC and EARLY JURASSIC conglomerates, red sandstones, red shales, basalt, and diabase (Palisades sill)
PENNSYLVANIAN and MISSISSIPPIAN conglomerates, sandstones, and shales
DEVONIAN
limestones, shales, sandstones, and conglomerates
SILURIAN
SILURIAN
also contains salt, gypsum, and hematite.
ORDOVICIAN
limestones, shales, sandstones, and dolostones
CAMBRIAN
CAMBRIAN and EARLY ORDOVICIAN sandstones and dolostones
moderately to intensely metamorphosed east of the Hudson River
CAMBRIAN and ORDOVICIAN (undifferentiated) quartzites, dolostones, marbles, and schists
intensely metamorphosed; includes portions of the Taconic Sequence and Cortlandt Complex
TACONIC SEQUENCE sandstones, shales, and slates
slightly to intensely metamorphosed rocks of
CAMBRIAN
through
MIDDLE ORDOVICIAN
ages
MIDDLE PROTEROZOIC gneisses, quartzites, and marbles
Lines are generalized structure trends.
MIDDLE PROTEROZOIC anorthositic rocks
}
}
}
}
}
Dominantly
sedimentary
origin
Dominantly
metamorphosed
rocks
Intensely metamorphosed rocks
(regional metamorphism about 1,000 m.y.a.)
N
S
WE
02040
02040
60 80
Kilometers
Miles
10 30 50
Generalized Bedrock Geology of New York State
Physical Setting/Earth Science Reference Tables — 2011 Edition 4
Surface Ocean Currents
Physical Setting/Earth Science Reference Tables — 2011 Edition 5
P
e
r
u
-
C
h
i
l
e
T
r
e
n
c
h
Hawaii
Hot Spot
San Andreas
Fault
Juan de
Fuca Plate
Philippine
Plate
A
l
e
u
t
i
a
n
T
r
e
n
c
h
Yellowstone
Hot Spot
North American
Plate
African
Plate
Cocos
Plate
Caribbean
Plate
M
i
d
-
A
t
l
a
n
t
i
c
R
i
d
g
e
Canary
Islands
Hot Spot
South
American
Plate
Galapagos
Hot Spot
Nazca
Plate
Antarctic
Plate
Indian-Australian
Plate
Pacific
Plate
Fiji Plate
E
a
s
t
P
a
c
i
f
i
c
R
i
d
g
e
Antarctic
Plate
Arabian
Plate
Eurasian
Plate
Eurasian
Plate
Iceland
Hot Spot
E
a
s
t
A
f
r
i
c
a
n
R
i
f
t
M
i
d
-
I
n
d
i
a
n
R
i
d
g
e
S
o
u
t
h
e
a
s
t
I
n
d
i
a
n
R
i
d
g
e
Southwest Indian
Ridge
Scotia
Plate
Sandwich
Plate
M
i
d
-
A
t
l
a
nt
i
c
R
i
d
g
e
Easter Island
Hot Spot
St. Helena
Hot Spot
Bouvet
Hot Spot
Key
NOTE: Not all mantle hot spots, plates, and
boundaries are shown.
Complex or uncertain
plate boundary
Relative motion at
plate boundary
Mantle
hot spot
Divergent plate boundary
(usually broken by transform
faults along mid-ocean ridges)
Convergent plate boundary
(subduction zone)
subducting
plate
overriding
plate
Transform plate boundary
(transform fault)
Tectonic Plates
Tasman
Hot Spot
M
a
r
i
a
n
a
T
r
e
n
c
h
T
o
n
g
a
T
r
e
n
c
h
Physical Setting/Earth Science Reference Tables — 2011 Edition 6
E
r
o
s
i
o
n
W
e
a
t
h
e
r
i
n
g
&
E
r
o
s
i
o
n
(
U
p
l
i
f
t
)
M
e
t
a
m
o
r
p
h
i
s
m
M
e
l
t
i
n
g
S
o
l
i
d
i
f
i
c
a
t
i
o
n
M
e
l
t
i
n
g
W
e
a
t
h
e
r
i
n
g
&
E
r
o
s
i
o
n
(
U
p
l
i
ft
)
M
e
t
a
m
o
r
p
h
i
s
m
W
e
a
t
h
e
r
i
n
g
&
E
r
o
s
i
o
n
(
U
p
l
i
f
t
)
H
e
a
t
a
n
d
/
o
r
P
r
e
s
s
u
r
e
H
e
a
t
a
n
d
/
o
r
P
r
e
s
s
u
r
e
M
e
l
t
i
n
g
C
e
m
e
n
t
a
t
i
o
n
a
n
d
B
u
r
i
a
l
C
o
m
p
a
c
t
i
o
n
a
n
d
/
o
r
D
e
p
o
s
i
t
i
o
n
IGNEOUS
ROCK
SEDIMENTS
MAGMA
METAMORPHIC
ROCK
SEDIMENTARY
ROCK
0.0001
0.001
0.01
0.1
1.0
10.0
100.0
PARTICLE DIAMETER (cm)
Boulders
Cobbles
Pebbles
Sand
Silt
Clay
1000
500
50
100
10
5
1
0.5
0.1
0.05
0.01
STREAM VELOCITY (cm/s)
This generalized graph shows the water velocity
needed to maintain, but not start, movement. Variations
occur due to differences in particle density and shape.
25.6
6.4
0.2
0.006
0.0004
Rock Cycle in Earth’s Crust
Scheme for Igneous Rock Identification
Relationship of Transported
Particle Size to Water Velocity
Pyroxene
(green)
Amphibole
(black)
Biotite
(black)
Potassium
feldspar
(pink to white)
(relative by volume)
MINERAL COMPOSITION
Quartz
(clear to
white)
CHARACTERISTICS
MAFIC
(rich in Fe, Mg)
HIGHER
DARKER
FELSIC
(rich in Si, Al)
LOWER
LIGHTER
CRYSTAL
SIZE
TEXTURE
Pumice
INTRUSIVE
(Plutonic)
EXTRUSIVE
(Volcanic)
ENVIRONMENT OF FORMATION
Plagioclase feldspar
(white to gray)
Olivine
(green)
COMPOSITION
DENSITY
COLOR
100%
75%
50%
25%
0%
100%
75%
50%
25%
0%
IGNEOUS ROCKS
non-
crystalline
Glassy
Basaltic glass
Obsidian
(usually appears black)
less than
1 mm
Fine
Basalt
Andesite
Rhyolite
1 mm
to
10 mm
Coarse
Peri-
dotite
Gabbro
Diorite
Granite
Pegmatite
10 mm
or
larger
Very
coarse
Scoria
Vesicular
(gas
pockets)
Dunite
Non-
vesicular
Non-
vesicular
Vesicular basalt
Vesicular rhyolite
Vesicular
andesite
Diabase
Physical Setting/Earth Science Reference Tables — 2011 Edition 7
INORGANIC LAND-DERIVED SEDIMENTARY ROCKS
COMPOSITIONTEXTURE GRAIN SIZE COMMENTS ROCK NAME MAP SYMBOL
Rounded fragments
Angular fragments
Mostly
quartz,
feldspar, and
clay minerals;
may contain
fragments of
other rocks
and minerals
Pebbles, cobbles,
and/or boulders
embedded in sand,
silt, and/or clay
Clastic
(fragmental)
Very fine grain
Compact; may split
easily
Conglomerate
Breccia
CHEMICALLY AND/OR ORGANICALLY FORMED SEDIMENTARY ROCKS
Crystalline
Halite
Gypsum
Dolomite
Calcite
Carbon
Crystals from
chemical
precipitates
and evaporites
Rock salt
Rock gypsum
Dolostone
Limestone
Bituminous coal
. . . . .
. . . .
Sand
(0.006 to 0.2 cm)
Silt
(0.0004 to 0.006 cm)
Clay
(less than 0.0004 cm)
Sandstone
Siltstone
Shale
Fine to coarse
COMPOSITIONTEXTURE GRAIN SIZE COMMENTS ROCK NAME MAP SYMBOL
Fine
to
coarse
crystals
Microscopic to
very coarse
Precipitates of biologic
origin or cemented shell
fragments
Compacted
plant remains
. . . . .
. . . .
Bioclastic
Crystalline or
bioclastic
FOLIATED
Fine
Fine
to
medium
Medium
to
coarse
Regional
Low-grade
metamorphism of shale
Platy mica crystals visible
from metamorphism of clay
or feldspars
High-grade metamorphism;
mineral types segregated
into bands
Slate
Schist
Gneiss
COMPOSITIONTEXTURE
GRAIN
SIZE
COMMENTS ROCK NAME
TYPE OF
METAMORPHISM
(Heat and
pressure
increases)
MINERAL
ALIGNMENT
BAND-
ING
MAP SYMBOL
Foliation surfaces shiny
from microscopic mica
crystals
Phyllite
GARNET
PYROXENE
FELDSPAR
AMPHIBOLE
MICA
QUARTZ
Hornfels
NONFOLIATED
Metamorphism of
quartz sandstone
Metamorphism of
limestone or dolostone
Pebbles may be distorted
or stretched
Metaconglomerate
Quartzite
Marble
Coarse
Fine
to
coarse
Quartz
Calcite and/or
dolomite
Various
minerals
Contact
(heat)
Various rocks changed by
heat from nearby
magma/lava
Various
minerals
Fine
Anthracite coal
Regional
Metamorphism of
bituminous coal
Carbon
Fine
Regional
or
contact
Scheme for Metamorphic Rock Identification
Scheme for Sedimentary Rock Identification
Physical Setting/Earth Science Reference Tables — 2011 Edition 8
PLEISTOCENE
PLIOCENE
MIOCENE
OLIGOCENE
EOCENE
PALEOCENE
LATE
EARLY
LATE
MIDDLE
EARLY
LATE
MIDDLE
EARLY
LATE
MIDDLE
EARLY
LATE
MIDDLE
EARLY
LATE
MIDDLE
EARLY
LATE
EARLY
LATE
MIDDLE
EARLY
LATE
MIDDLE
EARLY
EARLY
LATE
GEOLOGIC HISTORY
Elliptocephala
Cryptolithus
Phacops
Hexameroceras Manticoceras
Eucalyptocrinus
Ctenocrinus
Tetragraptus
Dicellograptus Eurypterus
Stylonurus
B LA EC D
G
H
F I J NK M
Centroceras
Valcouroceras
Coelophysis
(Index fossils not drawn to scale)
EraEon
PHANERO-
ZOIC
PRECAMBRIAN
ARCHEAN PROTEROZOIC
L
A
T
E
L
A
T
E
M
I
D
D
L
E
M
I
D
D
L
E
E
A
R
L
Y
E
A
R
L
Y
0
500
1000
2000
3000
4000
4600
Million years ago
CENOZOIC
MESOZOIC
PALEOZOIC
QUATERNARY
NEOGENE
PALEOGENE
CRETACEOUS
JURASSIC
TRIASSIC
PERMIAN
CARBONIF-
EROUS
DEVONIAN
Period Epoch Life on Earth
SILURIAN
ORDOVICIAN
CAMBRIAN
580
488
444
416
318
299
200
146
Million years ago
NY Rock
Record
PENNSYLVANIAN
HOLOCENE
65.5
251
1.8
5.3
0.01
0
23.0
33.9
MISSISSIPPIAN
Humans, mastodonts, mammoths
55.8
Large carnivorous mammals
Abundant grazing mammals
Earliest grasses
Many modern groups of mammals
Mass extinction of dinosaurs, ammonoids, and
many land plants
Earliest flowering plants
Diverse bony fishes
Earliest birds
Earliest mammals
Mass extinction of many land and marine
organisms (including trilobites)
Mammal-like reptiles
Abundant reptiles
Extensive coal-forming forests
Abundant amphibians
Large and numerous scale trees and seed ferns
(vascular plants); earliest reptiles
359
Earliest amphibians and plant seeds
Extinction of many marine organisms
Earth’s first forests
Earliest ammonoids and sharks
Abundant fish
Earliest insects
Earliest land plants and animals
Abundant eurypterids
Invertebrates dominant
Earth’s first coral reefs
Burgess shale fauna (diverse soft-bodied organisms)
Earliest fishes
Earliest trilobites
542
Abundant stromatolites
Ediacaran fauna (first multicellular, soft-bodied
marine organisms)
Extinction of many primitive marine organisms
First
sexually
reproducing
organisms
Oldest known rocks
Estimated time of origin
of Earth and solar system
Sediment
Bedrock
Abundant dinosaurs and ammonoids
Earliest dinosaurs
Great diversity of life-forms with shelly parts
1300
Evidence of biological
carbon
Earliest stromatolites
Oldest microfossils
Oceanic oxygen
produced by
cyanobacteria
combines with
iron, forming
iron oxide layers
on ocean floor
Oceanic oxygen
begins to enter
the atmosphere
Physical Setting/Earth Science Reference Tables — 2011 Edition 9
Grenville orogeny: metamorphism of
bedrock now exposed in the Adirondacks
and Hudson Highlands
Advance and retreat of last continental ice
Sands and clays underlying Long Island and
Staten Island deposited on margin of Atlantic
Ocean
Dome-like uplift of Adirondack region begins
Intrusion of Palisades sill
Initial opening of Atlantic Ocean
North America and Africa separate
Pangaea begins to break up
Catskill delta forms
Erosion of Acadian Mountains
Acadian orogeny caused by collision of
North America and Avalon and closing
of remaining part of Iapetus Ocean
Salt and gypsum deposited in evaporite basins
Erosion of Taconic Mountains; Queenston delta
forms
Taconian orogeny caused by closing
of western part of Iapetus Ocean and
collision between North America and
volcanic island arc
Widespread deposition over most of New York
along edge of Iapetus Ocean
Rifting and initial opening of Iapetus Ocean
Erosion of Grenville Mountains
OF NEW YORK STATE
Mastodont
Beluga Whale
Cooksonia
Bothriolepis
Maclurites Eospirifer
Mucrospirifer
Aneurophyton
CondorNaples Tree Cystiphyllum
Lichenaria Pleurodictyum
P
O
RQ S T U V W X Y Z
Platyceras
Time Distribution of Fossils
(including important fossils of New York)
Important Geologic
Events in New York
Inferred Positions of
Earth’s Landmasses
ADU (2011)
The center of each lettered circle indicates the approximate time of
existence of a specific index fossil (e.g. Fossil lived at the end
of the Early Cambrian).
PLACODERM FISH
A
Alleghenian orogeny caused by
collision of North America and
Africa along transform margin,
forming Pangaea
119 million years ago
359 million years ago
458 million years ago
232 million years ago
59 million years ago
TRILOBITES
C
B
A
BIRDS
S
E
D
F
NAUTILOIDS
AMMONOIDS
G
CRINOIDS
H
I
J
K
GRAPTOLITES
L
DINOSAURS
MAMMALS
O
N
EURYPTERIDS
M
P
Q
VASCULAR PLANTS
T
U
V
CORALS
R
BRACHIOPODS
GASTROPODS
W
X
Y
Z
Physical Setting/Earth Science Reference Tables — 2011 Edition 10
Inferred Properties of Earth’s Interior
24
23
22
21
20
19
18
17
16
15
14
13
12
11
10
9
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
1
2
34
567
8
EPICENTER DISTANCE (× 10
3
km)
P
910
S
TRAVEL TIME (min)
0
0
Physical Setting/Earth Science Reference Tables — 2011 Edition 11
Earthquake P-Wave and S-Wave Travel Time
1
–33
–28
–24
–21
–18
–14
–12
–10
–7
–5
–3
–1
1
4
6
8
10
12
14
16
19
21
23
25
27
29
2
–36
–28
–22
–18
–14
–12
–8
–6
–3
–1
1
3
6
8
11
13
15
17
19
21
23
25
27
0
–20
–18
–16
–14
–12
–10
–8
–6
–4
–2
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
16
18
20
22
24
26
28
30
–20
–18
–16
–14
–12
–10
–8
–6
–4
–2
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
16
18
20
22
24
26
28
30
3
–29
–22
–17
–13
–9
–6
–4
–1
1
4
6
9
11
13
15
17
20
22
24
26
4
–29
–20
–15
–11
–7
–4
–2
1
4
6
9
11
14
16
18
20
22
24
5
–24
–17
–11
–7
–5
–2
1
4
7
9
12
14
16
18
21
23
6
–19
–13
–9
–5
–2
1
4
7
10
12
14
17
19
21
7
–21
–14
–9
–5
–2
1
4
7
10
12
15
17
19
8
–14
–9
–5
–1
2
4
8
10
13
16
18
9
–28
–16
–10
–6
–2
2
5
8
11
14
16
10
–17
–10
–5
–2
3
6
9
11
14
11
–17
–10
–5
–1
2
6
9
12
12
–19
–10
–5
–1
3
7
10
13
–19
–10
–5
0
4
8
14
–19
–10
–4
1
5
15
–18
–9
–3
1
1
28
40
48
55
61
66
71
73
77
79
81
83
85
86
87
88
88
89
90
91
91
92
92
92
93
93
2
11
23
33
41
48
54
58
63
67
70
72
74
76
78
79
80
81
82
83
84
85
86
86
0
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
–20
–18
–16
–14
–12
–10
–8
–6
–4
–2
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
16
18
20
22
24
26
28
30
3
13
20
32
37
45
51
56
59
62
65
67
69
71
72
74
75
76
77
78
79
4
11
20
28
36
42
46
51
54
57
60
62
64
66
68
69
70
71
72
5
1
11
20
27
35
39
43
48
50
54
56
58
60
62
64
65
66
6
6
14
22
28
33
38
41
45
48
51
53
55
57
59
61
7
10
17
24
28
33
37
40
44
46
49
51
53
55
8
6
13
19
25
29
33
36
40
42
45
47
49
9
4
10
16
21
26
30
33
36
39
42
44
10
2
8
14
19
23
27
30
34
36
39
11
1
7
12
17
21
25
28
31
34
12
1
6
11
15
20
23
26
29
13
5
10
14
18
21
25
14
4
9
13
17
20
15
4
9
12
16
Difference Between Wet-Bulb and Dry-Bulb Temperatures (C°)
Difference Between Wet-Bulb and Dry-Bulb Temperatures (C°)
Dry-Bulb
Tempera -
ture (°C)
Dry-Bulb
Tempera -
ture (°C)
Dewpoint (°C)
Relative Humidity (%)
Physical Setting/Earth Science Reference Tables — 2011 Edition 12
Physical Setting/Earth Science Reference Tables — 2011 Edition 13
Temperature Pressure
One atmosphere
millibars
(mb)
inches
(in of Hg*)
30.70
1040.0
1036.0
1032.0
1028.0
1024.0
1020.0
1016.0
1012.0
1008.0
1004.0
1000.0
996.0
992.0
988.0
984.0
980.0
976.0
972.0
968.0
*Hg = mercury
30.60
30.50
30.40
30.30
30.20
30.10
30.00
29.90
29.80
29.70
29.60
29.50
29.40
29.30
29.20
29.10
29.00
28.90
28.80
28.70
28.60
28.50
Key to Weather Map Symbols
196
+19/
.25
28
27
2
1
Station Model
Station Model Explanation
196
+19/
.25
28
27
1
2
Amount of cloud cover
(approximately 75% covered)
Barometric pressure (1019.6 mb)
Barometric trend
(a steady 1.9-mb rise in past 3 hours)
Precipitation
(0.25 inches in past 6 hours)
Wind direction
(from the southwest)
Temperature (°F)
Present weather
Visibility (mi)
Dewpoint (°F)
Wind speed
(1 knot = 1.15 mi/h)
whole feather = 10 knots
half feather = 5 knots
total = 15 knots
Air Masses
Present Weather
Fronts Hurricane
Tornado
cA
cP
cT
mT
mP
continental arctic
continental polar
continental tropical
maritime tropical
maritime polar
Cold
Warm
Stationary
Occluded
Freezing
rain
Haze
Rain
FogSnow
Hail Rain
showers
Thunder-
storms
Drizzle
Sleet
Smog
Snow
showers
Fahrenheit
(°F)
Celsius
(°C)
Kelvin
(K)
Water boils
220
200
180
160
140
120
100
80
60
40
20
0
–20
–40
–60
Room temperature
Water freezes
110
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
–10
–20
–30
–40
–50
380
370
360
350
340
330
320
310
300
290
280
270
260
250
240
230
220
Physical Setting/Earth Science Reference Tables — 2011 Edition 14
Gamma rays
X rays
Ultraviolet Infrared
Microwaves
Radio waves
Visible light
Violet
Blue
Green Yellow Orange Red
Decreasing wavelength Increasing wavelength
(Not drawn to scale)
Electromagnetic Spectrum
Planetary Wind and Moisture
Belts in the Troposphere
The drawing on the right shows the
locations of the belts near the time of an
equinox. The locations shift somewhat
with the changing latitude of the Sun’s
vertical ray. In the Northern Hemisphere,
the belts shift northward in the summer
and southward in the winter.
(Not drawn to scale)
Selected
Properties of
Earth’s
Atmosphere
Physical Setting/Earth Science Reference Tables — 2011 Edition 15
Solar System Data
Celestial
Object
Mean Distance
from Sun
(million km)
Period of
Revolution
(d=days) (y=years)
Period of
Rotation at Equator
Eccentricity
of Orbit
Equatorial
Diameter
(km)
Mass
(Earth = 1)
Density
(g/cm
3
)
SUN — — 27 d — 1,392,000 333,000.00 1.4
MERCURY 57.9 88 d 59 d 0.206 4,879 0.06 5.4
VENUS 108.2 224.7 d 243 d 0.007 12,104 0.82 5.2
EARTH 149.6 365.26 d 23 h 56 min 4 s 0.017 12,756 1.00 5.5
MARS 227.9 687 d 24 h 37 min 23 s 0.093 6,794 0.11 3.9
JUPITER 778.4 11.9 y 9 h 50 min 30 s 0.048 142,984 317.83 1.3
SATURN 1,426.7 29.5 y 10 h 14 min 0.054 120,536 95.16 0.7
URANUS 2,871.0 84.0 y 17 h 14 min 0.047 51,118 14.54 1.3
NEPTUNE 4,498.3 164.8 y 16 h 0.009 49,528 17.15 1.8
EARTH’S
MOON
149.6
(0.386 from Earth)
27.3 d 27.3 d 0.055 3,476 0.01 3.3
Characteristics of Stars
(Name in italics refers to star represented by a .)
(Stages indicate the general sequence of star development.)
Color
Surface Temperature (K)
0.0001
0.001
0.01
0.1
1
10
100
1,000
10,000
100,000
1,000,000
Luminosity
(Rate at which a star emits energy relative to the Sun)
20,000 10,000 8,000 6,000 4,000 3,000
Blue Blue White White Yellow
2,000
RedOrange
Sirius
Spica
Polaris
Rigel
Deneb
Betelgeuse
SUPERGIANTS
(Intermediate stage)
(Intermediate stage)
GIANTS
Barnard’s
Star
Proxima
Centauri
Pollux
Alpha Centauri
Aldebaran
Sun
Procyon B
Small
Stars
Massive
Stars
WHITE DWARFS
(Late stage)
M
A
I
N
S
E
Q
U
E
N
C
E
(
E
a
r
l
y
s
t
a
g
e
)
40 Eridani B
30,000
1–2
silver to
gray
black streak,
greasy feel
pencil lead,
lubricants
C
Graphite
2.5
metallic
silver
gray-black streak, cubic cleavage,
density = 7.6 g/cm
3
ore of lead,
batteries
PbS
Galena
5.5–6.5
black to
silver
black streak,
magnetic
ore of iron,
steel
Fe
3
O
4
Magnetite
6.5
brassy
yellow
green-black streak,
(fool’s gold)
ore of
sulfur
FeS
2
Pyrite
5.5 – 6.5
or 1
metallic silver or
earthy red
red-brown streak
ore of iron,
jewelry
Fe
2
O
3
Hematite
1
white to
green
greasy feel
ceramics,
paper
Mg
3
Si
4
O
10
(OH)
2
Talc
2
yellow to
amber
white-yellow streak sulfuric acid S
Sulfur
2
white to
pink or gray
easily scratched
by fingernail
plaster of paris,
drywall
CaSO
4
•2H
2
O
Selenite gypsum
2–2.5
colorless to
yellow
flexible in
thin sheets
paint, roofing KAl
3
Si
3
O
10
(OH)
2
Muscovite mica
2.5
colorless to
white
cubic cleavage,
salty taste
food additive,
melts ice
NaCl
Halite
2.5–3
black to
dark brown
flexible in
thin sheets
construction
materials
K(Mg,Fe)
3
AlSi
3
O
10
(OH)
2
Biotite mica
3
colorless
or variable
bubbles with acid,
rhombohedral cleavage
cement,
lime
CaCO
3
Calcite
3.5
colorless
or variable
bubbles with acid
when powdered
building
stones
CaMg(CO
3
)
2
Dolomite
4
colorless or
variable
cleaves in
4 directions
hydrofluoric
acid
CaF
2
Fluorite
5–6
black to
dark green
cleaves in
2 directions at 90°
mineral collections,
jewelry
(Ca,Na) (Mg,Fe,Al)
(Si,Al)
2
O
6
Pyroxene
(commonly augite)
5.5
black to
dark green
cleaves at
56° and 124°
mineral collections,
jewelry
CaNa(Mg,Fe)
4
(Al,Fe,Ti)
3
Si
6
O
22
(O,OH)
2
Amphibole
(commonly hornblende)
6
white to
pink
cleaves in
2 directions at 90°
ceramics,
glass
KAlSi
3
O
8
Potassium feldspar
(commonly orthoclase)
6
white to
gray
cleaves in 2 directions,
striations visible
ceramics,
glass
(Na,Ca)AlSi
3
O
8
Plagioclase feldspar
6.5
green to
gray or brown
commonly light green
and granular
furnace bricks,
jewelry
(Fe,Mg)
2
SiO
4
Olivine
7
colorless or
variable
glassy luster, may form
hexagonal crystals
glass, jewelry,
electronics
SiO
2
Quartz
6.5–7.5
dark red
to green
often seen as red glassy grains
in NYS metamorphic rocks
jewelry (NYS gem),
abrasives
Fe
3
Al
2
Si
3
O
12
Garnet
HARD- COMMON DISTINGUISHING
LUSTER NESS COLORS CHARACTERISTICS USE(S) COMPOSITION* MINERAL NAME
Nonmetallic luster
*Chemical symbols: Al = aluminum Cl = chlorine H = hydrogen Na = sodium S = sulfur
C = carbon F = fluorine K = potassium O = oxygen Si = silicon
Ca = calcium Fe = iron Mg = magnesium Pb = lead Ti = titanium
= dominant form of breakage
Metallic luster
Either
FRACTURE
CLEAVAGE
Properties of Common Minerals
Physical Setting/Earth Science Reference Tables — 2011 Edition 16
