Aquatic (Surface Water) Pest Control Study Guide

Format Revised by UDAF 11/2008

STUDY GUIDE FOR

AQUATIC (SURFACE WATER)

PEST CONTROL

The educational material in this study guide is practical information to prepare you to meet the written test

requirements. It doesn’t include all the things you need to know about this pest-control subject or your pest-

control profession. It will, however, help you prepare for your test.

Contributors include the Utah Department of Agriculture and Utah State University Extension Service. This

study guide is based on a similar one published by the Colorado Department of Agriculture. Materials for that

guide were prepared by Colorado State University Extension Service. Other contributors include: University

Cooperative Extension Service personnel of California, Kansas, New York, Oregon, Pacific Northwest,

Pennsylvania, and Wyoming. Other contributors were the U.S. Department of Agriculture -- Forest Service, the

United States

Environmental Protection Agency (Region VIII), the Department of Interior -- Bureau of Reclamation, and Metro

Pest Management.

The information and recommendations contained in this study guide are based on data believed to be correct.

However, no endorsement, guarantee or warranty of any kind, expressed or implied, is made with respect to the

information contained herein.

Other topics that may be covered in your examinations include First Aid, Personal Protective Equipment (PPE),

Protecting the Environment, Pesticide Movement, Groundwater, Endangered Species, Application Methods and

Equipment, Equipment Calibration, Insecticide Use, Application, Area Measurements, and Weights and

Measures. Information on these topics can be found in the following books:

1. National Pesticide Applicator Certification Core Manual, Published by the National Association of

State Departments of Agriculture Research Foundation.

2. The Workers Protection Standard for Agricultural Pesticides – How to Comply: What

Employers Need to Know. U.S. EPA, Revised September 2005, Publication EPA/735-B-05-002.

These books can be obtained from the Utah Department of Agriculture or Utah State University Extension

Service. Please contact your local Utah Department of Agriculture Compliance Specialist or Utah State University

extension agent.

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

Section: Page Number

INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

ECOLOGY OF WATER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

BIOLOGY OF AQUATIC PLANTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

AQUATIC WEEDS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

CULTURAL AND MECHANICAL CONTROL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

BIOLOGICAL CONTROL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4

CHEMICAL CONTROL OF AQUATIC WEEDS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5

CHEMICAL FORMULATIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5

APPLICATION OF CHEMICALS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7

APPLICATION TECHNIQUES …………………………………… 8

APPLICATIOIN EQUIPMENT …………………………………… 9

WEED CONTROL IN STATIC WATER ………………………………… 10

WEED CONTROL IN LARGE IMPOUNDMENTS …………………….. 10

WEED CONTROL IN FLOWING WATER ……………………………… 11

CONSIDERATIONS BEFORE CHOOSING A HERBICIDE …………… 11

ENVIRONMENTAL CONSIDERATIONS AND RESTRICTIONS (Weed Control) 12

IRRIGATION DITCH BANK WEED CONTROL……………………….. 13

CONTROL OF VERTEBRATES ………………………………………… 14

ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECTS (Vertebrate Control) …………………… 16

CHEMICAL CONTROL FAILURE ……………………………………… 16

THREATENED AND ENDANGERED SPECIES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17

WORKER PROTECTION STANDARDS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17

GROUNDWATER CONTAMINATION BY PESTICIDES . . . . . . . . . . . . 18

APPENDIX I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19

CALIBRATION INFORMATION ………………………………………… 21

APPENDIX ………………………………………………………………… 25

Algae and Weed Identification

Fish Control Information

iii

INTRODUCTION

Water is such a common natural resource that it’s often

taken for granted without much consideration for its

proper management. The old adage "You never miss

the water until the well goes dry" also applies to water

storage ponds, lakes, streams, and irrigation ditches.

Most ponds, at least those that are man-made, have

some reason for their existence. Aquatic weed growth

is a major consideration in the management of ponds,

lakes, and ditches. Control is important to maintain the

quality and use of water for wildlife, drinking,

recreation, agriculture, and transportation.

Aquatic weeds can cause serious agricultural problems.

They interfere with irrigation, restricting water

movement through canals by clogging siphons, trash

racks, turnouts, pump filters, and sprinkler irrigation

systems. In fact, some authorities say that half the land

now irrigated in the western United States would not

be irrigated during mid- and late-summer months if

chemical control of aquatic weeds were prohibited. In

some places, reed canary grass has increased rapidly

along the water line of irrigation canals and laterals;

this weedy grass reduces water flow in small canals

and laterals by 75 percent or more. In other parts of the

state, cattails and tules cause serious problems by

reducing water flow in irrigation and drainage ditches.

Also, weed beds offer a favorable environment for

mosquito production.

Heavy growths of algae and submersed aquatic weeds

often make many beautiful lakes and ponds become

unsightly during the summer, so that they have no use

other than for water storage. But with proper weed

control techniques, these ponds can be made attractive

and useful recreational facilities. The benefits of

removing aquatic weeds are many. First, it will

increase water-storage capacity, since heavy infestation

of weeds may reduce the holding capacity of a pond 30

percent or more. Second, most fish will produce better

and can be harvested better in clean water. Third,

getting rid of weeds will add to the recreational use of

water for better swimming, boating, and other uses.

Removing weeds also enhances the shoreline area,

which may be used for water-related recreational

activities such as fishing and picnicking.

ECOLOGY OF WATER

Having a basic understanding of the ecology of water,

especially ponds and lakes, is helpful in understanding

the aquatic weed problems that develop. What is a

pond? A pond is usually described as a body of water

that doesn’t have large amounts of water flowing in

and out of it continuously. This is a simple definition

of a complex and dynamic ecosystem.

Ponds are more than static bodies of water. Whether

they are natural or man-made, they are constantly

changing. Change within the pond may be caused by

fluctuations from season to season and even by

day-to-day variations in the weather. Many of the life

processes taking place in a pond are destructive, in that

ultimately they lead to the pond's deterioration, at least

from man's point of view. Without an outflow to clear

it of accumulated silt and dead plant and animal

materials, the pond gradually accumulates undesirable

materials and weeds. The addition of sediment and

nutrients from the pond's watershed area speeds up the

process.

Ponds teem with life. Plants, especially algae, in the

pond produce food, just as land plants do. They are the

main source of food for simple animals, which in turn

are eaten by larger animals and fish. These plants also

give off oxygen, which is necessary for fish and

animals to live. Large quantities of oxygen are also

consumed in the decomposition of organic material --

dead plants and animals. This decomposition is a

natural and basic part of the life of a pond.

The shallow waters of most ponds permit the

penetration of sunlight throughout, so the sun's rays

reach all the way to the bottom. This encourages the

growth of both desirable and undesirable plant life.

Nutrient-rich water and relatively high water

temperatures characterize many ponds. These factors

also encourage excessive algae and higher plant

growth. Some algae are desirable in that they serve as

food for microscopic animals at the bottom of the food

chain. Some algae, however, impart unpleasant odors,

colors and tastes to water; others produce toxic

substances that cause allergic reactions in people and

are sometimes lethal to fish and wildlife. And later in

the cycle, the accumulation of dying and decomposing

plants and algae can deplete the dissolved oxygen

supply. While fish-kills are often blamed on pesticides,

more often they occur naturally. During

decomposition, the bacteria and fungi carrying out this

process deplete the water of dissolved oxygen, causing

fish stress or, in extreme cases, fish-kills.

As stated earlier, water is a medium for complex

interactions between many organisms in the pond, lake

or stream. A good number of these interactions are

interdependent and actually beneficial. The oxygen

produced through photosynthesis by the submersed

aquatic plants and algae is used by fish, bacteria and

zooplankton for respiration. In turn, the carbon dioxide

released by fish during respiration is used by the

submersed aquatic plants and algae for photosynthesis.

These plants provide the materials and energy that

other aquatic organisms convert into food for fish.

The problem, then, is how to maintain a desirable

balance -- how to maintain adequate algae and plant

growth to supply the food chain, but at the same time

to keep potentially destructive forces in check.

BIOLOGY OF AQUATIC

PLANTS

Aquatic plants don't differ profoundly from terrestrial

plants, although their habits may differ. The medium in

which the foliage of terrestrial and underwater plants

grow is different.

However, both air and water serve as a medium for

some aquatic plants, and practically all aquatics

photosynthesize. Many bloom and produce seed --

some below the water surface, others above. Aquatic

plants include annuals that reproduce by seed or

spores; others are perennials that may reproduce by

rhizomes, tubers, or other vegetative parts as well as by

seed.

Almost all aquatic plants require light for growth and

survival. Those that grow beneath the water surface

may require only one to six percent of full sunlight;

different species require different amounts of light.

Therefore, the amount of light that penetrates a body of

water may determine the species present at different

depths.

Water temperatures may determine which plants grow

in a stream or body of water. Some species of algae

may grow and thrive in near-freezing temperatures.

Other plants begin growth at temperatures of about 45

degrees F., and still others grow best at 65 to 80

degrees F.

Aquatic plants require the same nutrients as terrestrial

plants. Rooted underwater species are believed to

obtain these nutrients from the soil as well as from the

water. Aquatics that grow underwater are very efficient

in extracting, concentrating and using nutrients from

water in which these nutrients are very dilute.

AQUATIC WEEDS

Regardless of the pest problem being considered for

management/control, the correct identification of the

target pest is critically important. Usually, aquatic

weeds are separated into four broad categories. These

are immersed, submersed, floating and algae.

Immersed species are rooted or anchored beneath the

water surface. They grow with most of their leaf-stem

tissue above the water surface and don't lower or rise

with the water level. Examples are cattails, purple

loosestrife, and tules. Most of these species become

established at or near the water lines of lakes, ponds,

and irrigation systems and spread outward into the

water.

Submersed species grow with all or most of their

vegetative tissue below the water surface. They have

shallow roots in the bottom of water channels and

make most of their growth during the warm part of the

summer. Plants of this type clog or reduce the carrying

capacities or irrigation channels, collect silt and debris,

and interfere with operation of sprinkler irrigation

systems. Examples are sago pondweed, coontail, water

milfoil, and elodea. These weeds are often referred to

as "moss."

Floating species are those that are either free-floating

or anchored and produce most of their foliage at or

above the water surface, lowering or rising with the

water level. Examples are the duckweeds and water

lily.

Algae are also submersed and free-floating, or they

may be anchored by "holdfasts" to rocks, ditch linings,

etc. Algae don’t have true roots or leaves and are often

called "pond scums," "slime," or "floating mats." Algae

are primitive plants that reproduce by spores. Where

they become abundant, they give water a soupy green

color often called "water bloom." Under some

conditions, algae may cause odors and bad taste in

municipal water supplies, and some species of

blue-green algae are toxic to humans, livestock, and

other warm-blooded animals.

Immersed and floating plants tend to have a thick outer

layer on their leaves. This can cause a problem with

herbicide absorption and make control difficult.

Submersed aquatic plants have a thin outer layer on

their stem and leaf surfaces. This is why they are able

to absorb nutrients from the water so well. This

characteristic makes them easier to control chemically,

because they will also absorb herbicides.

CULTURAL AND

MECHANICAL CONTROL

As stated previously, the first step in any control

program is to identify the problem. Low-growing

plants that don’t produce problems or interfere with

recreational uses should be left alone. If these are

eliminated or reduced, it's possible that much more

troublesome plants will replace them.

Excess growth of aquatic plants may be prevented by

removing or limiting one of the environmental factors

necessary for plant growth. These factors are water,

light, nutrients, and a minimum temperature of about

10 degrees C. (50 degrees F.). Obviously, the first three

factors may be controlled to some extent, but there is

no practical way to control water temperature.

Weed prevention begins with pond design and

construction. The following specifications will help in

aquatic weed prevention:

Build the pond as deep as possible. Most algae grow

only in sunlight; therefore, more water will become

infested when the pond is shallow. Deep water

discourages bottom-rooting plants whose leaves reach

the surface, such as coontails and potomageton. Deep

water also gives more protection to fish during long,

hard winters and extremely hot weather.

Build the pond as large as possible. This allows more

wave action to carry free-floating plant material to

shore.

Have abruptly sloping sides (at least three feet deep

within ten feet of shore). This is more treacherous for

humans and livestock but is essential if cattails,

bulrushes, sedges and willows are to be prevented.

Limit nutrient input. Sediment-rich nutrients may be

removed by building a small settling basin just

upstream from the pond's inlet.

To help prevent serious aquatic weed problems, you

can take the following steps:

Maintain a good sod or grass cover around your pond

to prevent runoff and erosion and to solidify banks.

Don’t fertilize turf directly around a pond.

Reduce soil erosion from cropped areas into your pond

through the use of conservation tillage, contour

farming, terraces, and grass waterways. Eutrophy is an

increase in mineral and organic nutrients that favor

plant over animal life. This will result from the

fertilizer and agricultural chemicals that are carried in

on the eroded soil.

Don’t allow livestock access to a pond. Animals tear

down banks and supply excessive nutrients to the

water. If your pond is to be used for watering livestock,

fence the pond, and water animals from a stock tank

below and outside the fence.

Don’t permit runoff from poultry or livestock

operations to enter your pond. If this kind of runoff is

occurring upstream from your pond, check with your

county board of health to see if anything can be done

about it.

Check septic tanks for possible leakage or seepage into

the pond. Locate your septic drain fields so that the

nutrient-rich effluent won’t reach your pond.

Manipulation of the water level might be used to

control weed growth. Some ponds, lakes, canals and

ditches can be drained so aquatic weeds will dry out.

The water levels in some large lakes and reservoirs can

be lowered enough to expose weeds in shallow areas.

Initial weed growth the following spring can be

inhibited or stopped by lowering the water level

enough to expose and dry or freeze the bottom

sediments where plants root. If possible, weed debris

and root stocks should be removed while the bottom is

exposed. The hard-to- control plants such as cattails

and other emergent with large, fleshy roots are

especially well-controlled by root removal.

Drying periods of several months may be needed to

control weeds in some ponds and lakes. In canals, it

may not be practical to interrupt water flow for longer

than three or four days. The season of year and species

of plant present may determine whether this method

will be useful in a particular situation.

Be sure to consider the resident fish species and their

normal spawning times. Weed growth in late spring

and early summer may be inhibited by raising the

water level. This will cut off light from the new

growing tips that are close to the bottom at this time of

year.

Light reduction by shading during this same period can

be effective for small areas. Black plastic sheeting over

a floating 2 inches x 4 inches frame is effective. Black

plastic may also be used as a bottom cover if held in

place with rocks or three or four inches of sand. This

method is most effective for small areas used for

swimming or docking.

Making the water deeper by removing sediments is

very effective, but this is impractical except when

building the pond.

Fertilization with inorganic nutrients may be a

convenient and inexpensive way to control weeds in

ponds and small lakes. Fertilization stimulates a dense

bloom of microscopic algae. The algae shade the pond

bottom and prevent or reduce the growth of submersed

weeds. Unless the fertilization is done correctly,

however, the weed problem may become even more

severe.

The fertilizer can be broadcast from a boat or dissolved

in the water in other ways. Existing weeds either are

not affected or their growth may be stimulated. You

may need to remove them before fertilizing. Ponds that

have a monthly water exchange greater than the

capacity of the pond don’t respond well to fertilization.

Fertilizers are more effective in deep water than in

shallow water. Cutting is another important technique

that has several advantages. All types of aquatic

vegetation, including filamentous algae and vascular

plants, can be removed. No special equipment or

protective clothing is needed. No operating experience

or permits are required. The technique can be practiced

under any conditions. And there are no restrictions on

the use of the water during or following treatment.

Disadvantages include increased time involved,

disposal of plant material, and the multiple yearly

cuttings that are usually required. Underwater cutting

using commercial machines, hand sickle or rake is

effective if practiced regularly. Commercial machines

cost from several hundred to many thousands of

dollars, depending on their capacity. The cut stems

should always be removed, because most aquatic

plants spread vegetatively. Any small piece may

become a new plant. A minimum of two cuttings is

usually needed each summer. Better control, even into

the next season, can be accomplished by more frequent

cuttings. Because many rooted aquatics are perennial

plants that remain alive but dormant during the winter,

complete removal by cutting in late fall will slow the

next spring's growth.

Several years of faithful cutting and removal will

gradually deplete the sediment of its nutrients and

result in less frequent cuttings. This technique is

especially applicable to lilies and cattails, which must

store leaf-produced starch in their roots for the next

year's early growth.

Aquatic plant harvesters are large machines that cut

five to eight feet below the surface and collect the

weeds in a single, power-driven operation; however,

these harvesters are usually too expensive for

individuals.

Don't spread noxious aquatic weeds. Always check

your boat, motor and trailer, and remove all plant

material from them before moving to another body of

water.

BIOLOGICAL CONTROL

Biological controls for aquatic weed vegetation have

received much interest but little actual use. They have

been successful in a number of cases. Biological

control agents include:

• Tilapia -- This plant-eating fish has only limited

value. It will eat aquatic plants and reproduce

rapidly, but it survives winter temperatures in a

very few areas of this country.

• White amur -- The white amur is a large fish that

eats large amounts of aquatic plants. It survives

well in many areas of the United States. Because

its environmental hazards are not fully known,

only a few states permit its use.

• Insects -- Several insects have been brought into

this country to control aquatic weeds. The most

successful are a beetle and a moth that are parasitic

on alligator-weed. They have provided good

control of this weed in large areas of the South.

Other insects are under study for control of other

species of weeds.

CHEMICAL CONTROL OF

AQUATIC WEEDS

The use of chemical herbicides to control excess

aquatic plant growth is often convenient, quick,

effective and -- in some cases -- inexpensive. Of

course, there are disadvantages such as the safety

precautions necessary when storing, handling, applying

or disposing of the chemical. There is no guarantee it

will work in any specific situation. There is no

long-lasting effect or carry-over to the next season. In

fact, algae "blooms" are often stimulated by weed-kill.

There is danger of killing too much weed material at

one time and producing an oxygen deficiency for fish

and other organisms as the weed mass decays. There is

a restricted-use period after each application. Once the

chemical is in the water, there is little control over its

movement. And there is always the danger of

poisoning the wrong organism when chemicals are

used. This includes ourselves and various aquatic

organisms.

Before beginning an aquatic weed-control program,

one should analyze the problem. Considering the

following factors may help to analyze the situation:

1. Identify the problem species and other species

present; herbicides are not effective on all aquatic

weed species. This can be done with the help of

plant taxonomy books and other pertinent

references. Good references are "Aquatic Pests on

Irrigation Systems -- Identification Guide" and

"Herbicide Manual, A Water Resources Technical

Publication," both from the U.S. Department of the

Interior -- Bureau of Reclamation.

2. Determine density, stand, and stage of growth of

the weeds.

3. Determine what fish species are present, if any.

4. Determine whether the water is or will be used for

human consumption, irrigation, recreation, fish

production, livestock consumption, or wildlife

habitat.

5. Determine the destination of outflow or tail water.

6. Determine the size of channel or pond to be

treated.

7. Determine the depth and velocity of the water.

8. Determine the water temperature.

9. Determine which herbicides are registered for the

intended usage.

10. Rate the herbicides according to efficacy and to

selectivity desired.

11. Compare cost.

CHEMICAL

FORMULATIONS

Chemicals used in aquatic weed control are classified

as herbicides. Herbicides used primarily for control of

algae are called algaecides, even though they may also

kill other aquatic plants. Aquatic herbicides are

available in several formulations:

Sprayable Formulations -- Most herbicides are

formulated to be mixed with a water carrier and

sprayed. Some perform best as aquatic herbicides when

applied into static or flowing water so that they

disperse evenly and contact underwater surfaces of

weeds. Kinds available are:

• Water-soluble powders or crystals that form true

solutions in water

• Water-soluble liquid concentrates that form true

solutions in water

• Wettable powders that can be suspended in water

and applied

• Emulsifiable liquid concentrates that form ordinary

"oil-in-water" emulsions in water

• Special liquid concentrates that form "water-in-oil"

emulsions (called invert emulsions) when mixed

with water and oil in the spray tank or when

applied through special mixing nozzles.

Granular Formulations - Many aquatic herbicides are

used as dry granules of various sizes. Kinds available

are:

• Granulated pure chemical, such as crystalline

copper sulfate

• Granules or larger-size pellets of clay and other

materials impregnated with active ingredients

• Slow-release granules or pellets designed to release

the active ingredient in small amounts over an

extended period of time in the water.

Solutions -- Many herbicides come in solid forms

(such as copper sulfate) or liquid forms that readily

dissolve in water to form solutions. Solutions are stable

in that the chemical material doesn’t normally settle

out readily over a period of time. When using a

solution, fill the tank one-half full of water. Add the

chemical slowly, and stir until completely dissolved.

Next, bring the tank up to capacity. It may be

necessary to add a surfactant, a soap-like material that

tends to spread the water-soluble spray on the waxy

leaves of emergent or floating vegetation. When

applied under water, solutions disperse evenly and

bathe submerged plants completely.

Suspensions -- A suspension is formulated by mixing

a water-dispersible powder in water. This powder

doesn’t dissolve but is mixed or contained in the water.

Continuous agitation is needed in order to maintain the

material in suspension. There are two methods for

mixing: (1) Add the powder to a tank containing water

in which vigorous agitation is taking place. Never add

the powder to an empty tank, and never add powder to

a tank containing water in which there is little or no

agitation. If this is done, the powder will settle on the

bottom and possibly damage or clog the sprayer and

the sprayer lines. It will also form caked material on

the tank bottom. (2) A better way to mix dispersible

powders is to make a thin water slurry of the required

amount of material in a bucket or other container.

Thoroughly mix the wettable powder in the water

before adding it to the tank. Fill the tank one-half full

of water, pour the slurry into the tank, and thoroughly

agitate the water. When using suspensions, a sprayer

with mechanical agitation is preferable to one having

hydraulic agitation, because constant, vigorous mixing

is needed in order to maintain the suspension.

Emulsions -- An emulsion is a preparation that

doesn’t truly dissolve in the solvent or carrier, but

rather is dispersed throughout the carrier as almost

microscopic globules barely visible to the eye. Unlike a

true solution, if emulsions are given time; they will

separate or settle out of the carrier. When preparing

emulsions, if additional oil is needed, it should be

added to the chemical first. Then add the oil-chemical

mixture to a tank one-third full of water, and agitate as

the tank is filled to capacity. For best results with an

emulsion, constant agitation is needed. Most emulsions

consist of oil globules surrounded by water. Invert

emulsions are usually viscous and harder to apply;

however, they settle or sink more rapidly, reduce drift,

and adhere to plant surfaces.

"Bivert" or Invert Spray System -- The "bivert"

system is a relatively new system of applying chemical

spray. The system may be defined as a double invert. A

simple invert usually produces spray droplets of oil

surrounded by water or water drops surrounded by oil.

The "bivert" is a system with oil in water in oil. That

is, each spray droplet should have an oil center, an

outer layer of water, and a third layer of oil. The

herbicide may be included in either the oil, water, or in

both the oil and water phases. The "bivert" system,

along with simple inverts, has been used in the past to

treat terrestrial or floating plants, but it may have a

greater potential for aquatic weed control as a

technique for chemical application to submerged

plants.

The "bivert" spray enters below the water surface as

small, almost microscopic, droplets with the

consistency and adhesive texture of mayonnaise. It

descends through the water column, lands on and

adheres to the submerged vegetation, releasing the

herbicides close to the plants. Preliminary results of

this system indicate it has definite advantages over

parts-per-million treatment in several ways: it’s less

expensive, less chemical is needed, the chemical is

released near the plant, and the clinging property of the

droplet makes treatment in moving waters feasible.

Several herbicides are compatible to the system; others

must be specifically formulated to invert, or a specific

invert-additive must be mixed in the formulation.

The system has one distinct drawback. Since it’s a

form of invert, the mixing and application must be

done with extreme care. All chemical components

must be measured accurately, and the pressure and

vacuum hoses on the invert machinery must be

securely attached and airtight. Inverts are usually

lighter than water and must be weighted using an inert

material (sugar or molasses).

Slow-Release Pellets -- The slow-release pellet is a

relatively new formulation for aquatic weed control

and is designed especially for the control of submerged

aquatics. When the pellet contacts the water, it begins

to disintegrate, thus slowly releasing small quantities

of the herbicide over an extended period of time. This

system has a big advantage in that normally-fish-toxic

compounds known to be good aquatic weed-control

agents can be safely used. A good example of the

slow-release pellet is "Hydout," the monoamine salt of

endothall. It has long been known that this chemical is

a good agent for control of aquatics, but the salt is

normally toxic to fish at rates needed for weed control.

When placed in a slow-release pellet and used with

caution, good weed control can be obtained, and

fish-kill won’t result. With this system, treatment is

usually confined to the lower water depths where the

submerged weeds occur, leaving untreated surrounding

water areas where fish can escape. This system has an

advantage in that it’s easy to apply the pellets in a

uniform manner, and it’s also adaptable to aerial

application techniques. The system has two

disadvantages. Often a fine dust may accompany the

pellets, and when inhaled for prolonged periods, this

dust may irritate the respiratory organs. Second, if the

system isn’t used cautiously (especially when

fish-toxic chemicals are incorporated into the pellet),

fish-kill may result.

Granules -- Granules consist of vermiculite, attaclay,

or other similar carriers impregnated with an active

chemical herbicide. Granules are easily used in spot

treatments or places where liquids may be diluted

away, such as in large lakes. The particles sink to the

bottom, where the herbicide is released close to roots

and the new plant shoots. Hazard to non-target

organisms is reduced, because most of the herbicide

stays near the bottom, and less total chemical is

required.

APPLICATION OF

CHEMICALS

The application of chemicals to the water environment

must always be approached with caution. Identify the

plant, and be sure the chosen herbicide is appropriate.

Apply the minimum amount only to those areas that

really need treatment. Always consider the reasons for

controlling excess growth and later uses of the water.

To ensure uniform coverage, distribute half of the total

chemical needed by making several passes across the

area to be treated. Then repeat with the other half of

the chemical in a direction at right angles to the first

trips across the affected area.

It is best to split the treatment, doing one portion one

day and the second portion ten days or two weeks later.

This minimizes the danger to fish from oxygen

depletion by decaying weeds. Application should be

made when the plants are growing vigorously but

before huge masses appear. This is in spring or early

summer for most plants. The weather should be calm

and sunny, with little prospect of rain for 24 hours

When using herbicides in water, it’s of the utmost

importance to calculate rates of application correctly.

An error can be expensive, be disastrous to non-target

organisms in the water and to the applicator himself,

have adverse effects long distances from the

application area, cause contamination of drinking water

by the chemical itself, or decrease the general water

quality with tastes and colors. As a result, the

applicator may find a claim for damages filed against

him. It pays to understand rate calculations and apply

them correctly.

Although the correct chemicals must be selected for

treating aquatic plants, using the proper application

technique will determine whether or not this chemical

will be effective in controlling the aquatic weed

problem.

When treating aquatic plants in situations where

fishing is valued, two or more partial treatments are

recommended instead of total treatment of the body of

water in one operation. In highly nutritive waters

especially, a complete treatment may reduce the lake or

pond recovery capacity, and often the nutrients

released by the decaying plants after treatment are

recycled into undesirable types of algal growth.

Specific application

techniques are available for different situations and

should be used according to the particular type of

aquatic weed problem that exists.

APPLICATION TECHNIQUES

There are four zones in a body of water that may be

treated to control aquatic weeds:

• The water surface

• The total water volume

• The bottom one to three feet of water

• The bottom soil surface.

SURFACE TREATMENT

Generally only a fourth to a third of the surface area of

the water should be treated at a time. This helps protect

fish from a possible shortage of oxygen. Surface

acreage of a rectangular body of water equals length in

feet times width in feet divided by 43,560. For areas of

unusual shape, divide the pond into recognizable

shapes, calculate the area for each, and total it up.

A = semicircle B, B', D = triangles

Area = 3.14 x radius2

Area = ½ x base x height

C = rectangle area

Area = length x width

Liquid formulations are almost always recommended

for floating and emergent weeds. These weeds require

surface applications with the spray mixture applied

directly to the plants.

Use the following formula when making spray solution

for a particular number of pounds per acre of acid

equivalent (or active ingredient) using liquid herbicide:

Pints needed per 100 gallons of solution

= wanted lb. acid equiv. (or act. ingr.) per acre x 834

gal. spray per acre x lb. acid equiv. (or act ingr.) in 1 gal.

(100 gallons of water weigh about 834 pounds)

Example: If a 2,4-D formulation containing four

pounds acid equivalent per gallon is to be applied at

five pounds acid equivalent in 120 gallons of solution

per acre, the pints needed per 100 gallons of solution

are:

5 x 834

= 8.7 pints

120 x 4

When using solid (dry) herbicide:

Pounds needed per 100 gallons of solution =

wanted lb. acid equiv. (or act. ingr.) per acre x 100

gal. spray per acre x % acid equiv. (or act. ingr.)

TOTAL WATER VOLUME TREATMENT

The whole body of water (from the surface to the

bottom) is treated. You can also treat one-fourth to

one-third of the total water volume (base on surface

area) at a time. Calculate the volume of the body of

water and add chemical to obtain the required dilution

in the water.

The chemical can be metered or injected into the water

from booms trailing behind the boat or from a boat

bailer tied into a tank of chemicals. It can also be

applied as a spray over the water surface.

The concentration of chemical needed to kill aquatic

plants if often very small and is stated in parts per

million (ppm).

If the toxicity level of a certain chemical for a

particular aquatic weed is two ppm of active

ingredient, for example, the chemical should be applied

at a ratio of two parts of active ingredient to one

million parts of water in the area to be treated. First,

calculate the acre-feet of the body of water to be

treated. Multiply surface acres by the average depth in

feet.

For average depth in smaller lakes and ponds, divide

the maximum depth by two. In larger bodies of water,

areas of similar depth should be marked and treated as

a unit. Then change application rate accordingly for

other depths.

An acre-foot of water weighs 2.7 million pounds. If

one dissolves 2.7 pounds of any material in one

acre-foot of water, there will be a concentration of one

ppm by weight (ppmw).

1 acre = 43,560 square feet

1 acre-foot = l acre of water 1 foot deep = 43,560 cubic

feet

l cubic foot of water = 62.4 pounds

1 acre-foot = 2.7 lbs. chemical (active ingredient) per

acre-foot of water.

Use the following formula to determine the material

needed to obtain a desired ppm concentration: 2.7 x

ppm wanted x acre-feet = lbs. required.

Example:

Assume one wants to treat a pond containing ten

acre-feet. The concentration of active ingredient

required is 1.5 ppm. Using the formula:

2.7 x 1.5 x 10 = 40.5 lbs. of active ingredient

BOTTOM-LAYER TREATMENT

Treating the deepest one to three feet of water is

especially useful in deep lakes where it’s impractical to

treat the entire volume of water. Such treatments are

generally made by attaching several flexible hoses at

three- to five-foot intervals on a rigid boom. Each hose

is usually equipped with some type of nozzle at the

end. They may be weighted to reach the depth desired.

The length of hose and speed of the boat carrying the

application equipment also affect the depth of

application. Successful bottom treatments apply the

herbicide as a "blanket" in the lower one to three feet

of water.

This technique of application works well in lake or

static- water conditions that have sandy, firm bottoms,

and it’s much cheaper and safer than treating the entire

water column. It isn’t recommended for flowing water

conditions or where water usage leads to turbulent

water, or in areas where mud is deep. It is

recommended especially where chemicals toxic to fish

are used. By applying the material to the bottom foot,

upper waters where fish can escape the effects of the

chemical and decaying vegetation are left untreated.

= Bottom

Acre Feet

BOTTOM SOIL TREATMENT

Herbicide applications may be made to the bottom soil

of a drained pond, lake or channel.

APPLICATION EQUIPMENT

Applications of liquid formulations are usually made

with sprayers, which come in a variety of sizes and

types. To treat small areas, a compressed-air sprayer

with a hand-operated pump or sprinkler can may be all

that is needed. Higher-quality compressed-air sprayers

with CO

gas for constant pressure are available but are

more expensive.

For larger areas, a boat-mounted pump-and-tank rig

with one or several booms available would be used. If

submergents are being treated, it’s best to place the

nozzle(s) under the surface of the water. If emergent

plants are being sprayed, apply only under still wind

conditions and with the necessary protective clothing

and equipment as indicated on the label.

Application of granules and slow-release pellets isn’t

as troublesome because the treatment is usually on an

area basis. The chemical is released slowly from the

inert granules in the treatment area only; less chemical

is needed to get the job done, and toxicity effects to

applicators and non-target organisms are decreased.

Application can be made in the early spring with a

cyclone spreader or even by hand (wearing gloves)

from a boat. The granules sink to the bottom, where the

chemical is slowly released in the relatively small

volume of water where the new shoots are beginning to

grow.

WEED CONTROL IN STATIC WATER

Static water is water in ponds, lakes or reservoirs that

has little or no inflow and outflow. Even totally

enclosed bodies of water often have appreciable water

movement because of wind and other factors. Weeds

commonly grow in static water up to 12 feet deep. In

very clear water, however, weeds sometimes grow in

water 20 feet or more in depth.

Floating and immersed weeds are usually controlled

with sprayable formulations. These weeds are killed by

direct foliage applications of the spray mixture:

• By aircraft.

• With ground equipment, operated from the bank if

the pond is small or if weeds occur only around the

margins.

• From a boat, using various types of booms or spray

guns.

Submersed weeds and algae can be controlled with

either sprays or granules. Sprayable formulations are

most often applied as water-surface treatments,

especially in shallow water. The herbicide is dispersed

throughout the water by diffusion, thermal currents,

and wave action. Sprayable herbicides can be applied

under the surface by:

• Injection through a hose pulled along behind a

boat.

• Injection into the water by booms.

In all instances, control of weeds depends on good

dispersion of the chemical in the water. Sprayable

herbicides sometimes are used for bottom-soil

treatments. Some sprayable herbicides may be applied

from aircraft at low volumes of five to ten gallons per

acre.

Both surface and injection treatments made by boat or

ground equipment are more effective and are easier

when larger volumes of liquid carrier are used. A

handy sprayer for making applications by boat uses a

special pumping system that draws water from the lake

or pond as the boat moves along.

Concentrated herbicide is metered into the pumped

water to achieve the concentration required. This

avoids both frequent interruptions to prepare spray

solution and the need to carry water on board.

Granular formulations are generally used to control

algae or submersed weeds, although some are effective

on certain immersed weeds. Because granules sink to

the soil surface, they perform about the same way as

herbicides applied as bottom-soil treatments.

Application rates for granular herbicides may be based

on:

• Amount of herbicide per unit of surface area.

• The concentration (ppm) that would be achieved if

the same amount of herbicide were dissolved and

totally dispersed in the water (total-water-volume

treatment).

Granular herbicides perform best when distributed

evenly over the water surface. They may be broadcast

by hand or manual spreader over small areas. Special

granule spreaders mounted on aircraft or boats are used

for large-scale applications. Advantages of granular

herbicides are:

• Treatment is usually confined to the bottom, where

the submersed weeds are.

• They can be made to provide a long contact time

with weeds (slow-release granules).

• The herbicide concentration can be held to a low

level.

• They make it possible to use chemicals that in

other formulations would be toxic to fish.

WEED CONTROL IN LARGE

IMPOUNDMENTS

Herbicide applications that are successful in smaller

bodies of water often perform poorly in large

impoundments. These impoundments often have much

water movement caused by thermal currents or the

wind. Weed control may sometimes be improved in

these sites by:

• Using the maximum recommended application

rates.

• Treating relatively large water areas at one time.

• Applying herbicides only during periods of

minimum wind.

• Using bottom treatments in deep water.

• Using granular formulations when possible.

•

Selecting herbicides that are absorbed quickly

by the weeds.

WEED CONTROL IN FLOWING WATER

Aquatic weeds in flowing water are the hardest to

control. Because the water is moving from one location

to another, the possible hazards of herbicide use are

greater.

Herbicides are sometimes used to control weeds in

natural streams. Control of aquatic weeds in man-made

water distribution and drainage systems is more

common. Most of these carry irrigation water. Don’t

irrigate crops with treated water unless permitted by

the herbicide label. Some systems also carry domestic,

industrial and recreational water. As the number of

water uses increases, more restrictions and precautions

are required.

Floating and immersed weeds, when in flowing water,

require the same herbicides and treatment techniques

as they do in static water. Precautions and restrictions

are the same as those for control of submersed weeds

in flowing water.

Submersed weeds and algae can be controlled

effectively in flowing water only by continuously

applying enough herbicide at a given spot to maintain

the needed concentration and contact time.

The greater the cross-sectional area of the stream and

the greater the speed of flow, the larger the volume of

water that must be treated.

The large volume of water that must be treated makes

the use of herbicides in flowing water costly, especially

when the weed infestation covers only a small area or

the herbicides are effective for only a short distance

downstream.

Be sure that the residues in the treated water and runoff

water are at or below the levels permitted for all later

uses.

WEED CONTROL IN LIMITED-FLOW

WATERWAYS

Flood drainage canals, sloughs, and drains are good

examples of limited-flow waterways. Weed-control

methods in these systems of little water movement are

very similar to those used in static water. Consider the

possible contamination of water used for other

purposes when you plan the use of herbicides in

limited-flow water. In some areas, drainage water may

flow directly onto cropland or be used for irrigation, or

it may enter a fishery or drinking-water supply.

CONSIDERATIONS BEFORE CHOOSING A

HERBICIDE

Use of herbicides to control aquatic vegetation is

complicated by water entering and leaving the

impoundment because of springs, streams, runoff,

overflow pipes, and emergency spillways. Fresh water

entering the impoundment may dilute the chemical to a

point where it won’t be effective, while overflow of

treated water may kill plants in non-target areas or

pollute streams and other ponds or lakes. Ponds with a

high influx and outflux of water should be treated only

with copper sulfate, which poses little environmental

threat.

Projected use of treated water is another important

consideration influencing chemical selection.

Restrictions on the use of treated water for human and

livestock consumption; swimming; irrigation of turf,

food and forage crops; and also the consumption of

fish from treated water are specific for the herbicide

used.

Herbicide control may be longer lasting than other

methods, but a weed-free condition should not be

expected the following year. Retreatment the same

year may be necessary for hard-to-control aquatic

plants such as duckweed, and brittle and slender

naiads. Also, herbicide application may result in the

removal of predominant species, releasing other

tolerant species from competition that consequently

flourish in the open environment. The quality of the

water can have an effect on the herbicidal activity of

the chemical. If the water temperature is too low, the

chemical may stop working. Suspended matter in the

water may absorb the chemical and render it inactive.

The alkalinity of the water can be a principal factor.

High- bicarbonate alkalinity affects most chemicals. In

copper-sulfate treatments, the copper ions can react

with bicarbonate and carbonate ions in the water to

form insoluble complexes that precipitate from

solution and reduce the amount of biologically active

copper. Diquat and other chemicals are subject to

hydrolysis in alkaline waters, and this reduces their

effectiveness. (Diquat also quits working at low

temperatures and is readily absorbed by soil particles

in muddy or murky water.) Emulsifiers that ionize in

solution are affected by alkaline water. When treating

alkaline water with Xylene, a blend of non-

ionic-anionic emulsifiers should be used, because they

won’t react with mineral salts in hard waters since they

don’t ionize in solution.

One interesting aspect of water alkalinity is that fish

can tolerate higher concentrations of copper ion in

alkaline waters than they can in acid waters. For

reasons not clearly understood, higher alkalinity in

treated waters reduces toxicity of the copper ion to

fish.

Aquatic weeds are not affected by herbicides when

water is cold and weed growth is slow. Treatment

should not be made until the water temperature has

risen to at least 65 degrees F. Treatment for algae

control should be made before vegetative growth is

great, when about five to ten percent of the water

surface is covered with algae. Treat immersed and

submersed plants when they are growing rapidly up to

early bud stage. Optimum application dates for most

immersed and submersed plants and algae lie between

May 1 and July 1, depending on the year.

Cattails should be sprayed when they are about three

feet tall and before they begin to form heads.

Bodies of water should be treated before weed growth

is excessive for another important reason. Many

fish-kills following chemical treatment have resulted

from the depletion of water oxygen by the massive

decay of dying vegetation. If the weed infestation is

severe and covers much of the pond, treat only

one-fourth to one-half of the vegetation or pond area at

a time, and wait ten to 14 days before continuing

treatment. Applying one-third of the total chemical to

be used over one-third of the pond area followed by a

second and third treatment at ten- to 14-day intervals

over the rest of the pond is a good application program.

In the spring, vegetation is often limited to the edges of

the lake, and sufficient open water is available so

treatment of all vegetation should not result in a

fish-kill.

The sudden elimination of a dense growth of

vegetation from an aquatic environment very often

causes side effects that can produce significant changes

in the biological and physical makeup of a lake, pond

or stream.

Following the death of larger weed-plants in a pond or

lake, a greenish or yellowish-brown turbid condition

may be noticed. This condition is due to the presence

of billions of microscopic algae cells that have used the

released nutrients for growth and reproduction. The

blue-green algae are often responsible for a green,

pea-soup appearance, whereas other algae and various

one-celled organisms cause the yellowish-brown colors

in water. When conditions are optimal for development

of algae, a dense bloom can develop quickly. These

dense blooms of plankton algae cut down light

penetration and thereby inhibit the reestablishment of

those species killed in treatment, but the algae may

turn out to be more objectionable than the original

weed infestation.

Some aquatic vegetation is necessary for the

reproduction and survival of certain fish (pickerel,

golden shiners, and others). It follows that where

desirable fish are dependent on aquatic vegetation,

portions of water should be left untreated.

ENVIRONMENTAL CONSIDERATIONS

AND RESTRICTIONS

Incorrect application of herbicides in water may

involve serious hazards to man, wildlife, fish, and

desirable plant life. Consequently, you must:

• Select the correct herbicide for a specific aquatic

site and particular weed infestation.

• Apply it correctly at recommended rates.

• Observe the restrictions on use of the treated water.

• Be aware of the adverse effects of incorrect use.

• Obtain permission, if necessary, from appropriate

state or federal agencies.

The control of aquatic vegetation presents special

problems, because the water often has multiple uses,

and herbicides won’t always remain where they are

placed.

Consider all the uses of the water to be treated,

including those far downstream. Read the label to

determine that the herbicide you choose is compatible

with these uses.

Types of water use to consider before applying

herbicides include:

Types of water use to consider before applying

herbicides include:

• Human use, such as drinking, cooking, and

swimming. Few tolerances have been established

for herbicide residues in such water. Copper sulfate

has been used for control of algae in drinking

water for many years and is permitted at the

• Livestock and wild-animal use.

• Irrigation.

• Industrial uses.

• Fish production. Most aquatic herbicides are not

toxic to fish or other animal life at the

concentrations recommended for weed control.

Notable exceptions are Grade B xylene, acrolein,

and some solvents and emulsifiers in certain

formulations of normally non-toxic herbicides.

These should not be used in fisheries or where the

water treated with these herbicides could enter

fishery waters.

It is possible to use these herbicides for treatment of

small plots, or for treatment of weed-infested marginal

areas, with little hazard to fish. If given an avenue of

escape, fish will leave areas where the herbicide is

used.

Herbicides are rapidly accumulated by fish. Most

appear to concentrate in various organs and tissues of

the body, with least accumulation in muscle tissue. The

rate at which pesticide levels in fish decline varies

according to the chemical. The pesticide label will state

the time which must pass before fish are free of the

chemical and fit for human consumption. Pesticides are

obviously lethal to fish when used as directed.

When considering the toxicity of pesticides to fish, it

should again be pointed out that the kind of chemical,

species of fish, and nature of the water all play a role in

the ultimate reaction of the fish to a toxicant. The fry

are at the most susceptible stage of the life of a fish.

This is significant, since it’s usually recommended that

aquatic herbicides be applied during the spring, when

recently hatched fish are plentiful.

The acute toxicity of herbicides to fish and fish eggs is

usually small when used at the recommended dosage.

However, each herbicide should be evaluated on an

individual basis, depending on the treatment levels,

species of fish, and chemical characteristic of the

water. For example, copper sulphate is highly toxic to

trout at very low concentrations, much lower than the

level recommended to treat algae. The toxicity of

copper sulphate is also greatly affected by water

hardness, being more toxic as hardness decreases.

Fish can feed on a number of different food organisms

but generally restrict their feeding to a preferred group.

However, most fishes will take whatever food is

available in greatest quantities. Because of their

adaptability to varying conditions and ability to change

foods within limits, a temporary alteration in the food

chain may not have an adverse effect. If the number of

food organisms is reduced by the action of a pesticide

when food is scarce, fish may exhibit reduced growth

rates and fish populations may suffer.

In summary, most herbicides are non-toxic to fishes

when used at the recommended rates and properly

applied. Improper application rates, incorrect

formulation, or faulty application of herbicides may

result in a fish-kill or may seriously alter the food

chain, slowing the growth rate.

IRRIGATION DITCH-BANK WEED

CONTROL

Extreme care should be taken when choosing a

herbicide for the control of terrestrial weeds on the

inside of ditch banks. It is essential to determine what

crops the water irrigates. Irrigation ditch banks should

not be treated if the water is used to irrigate crops

susceptible to the herbicide.

The application of excessive amounts of non-selective

weed oils (petroleum oils) beyond that necessary to

cover target weeds should be avoided. If the dead

vegetation remaining after treatment with weed oil is to

be burned off, the necessary permits must be obtained

from local governments beforehand.

Foliar herbicide sprays should be applied with

low-pressure (ten to 40 psi), and spraying should be

done when the air is fairly calm (no more than seven

miles per hours) to minimize drift. No matter what type

of sprayer, boom or handgun is used, spraying onto an

irrigation-water surface should be held to an absolute

minimum, and no cross-stream spraying to opposite

banks should be done. The spray should be applied

while traveling upstream to avoid accidental

concentration of too much herbicide in the water.

A Rope-wick application of glyphosate (Roundup)

may be made to control taller-growing species while

allowing the growth of desirable grasses, such as red

fescue or redtop, to stabilize banks. The principle of

rope-wick application is to wipe the herbicide onto

taller-growing weeds. This would be a preferred

application technique where the water is used to

irrigate susceptible crops.

Rope-wick applicators usually consist of a supporting

slotted, horizontal boom through which a rope or cloth

wick about one-half inch in diameter has been inserted.

The wick is connected to a feed manifold that feeds the

chemical into the wick along its entire length. The

boom can be set at the proper height to contact the

taller weeds and miss the desirable lower growth.

Clumps of weeds on a ditch bank may make it

necessary to make two passes along the ditch bank in

opposite directions. If only one pass were made, only

one side of the clump would contact the herbicide.

Rope-wick application can be an economical and

selective application method, where it can be used. For

treatment of the densest ditch-bank weeds, rope-wick

application may not be as economical as more

conventional methods. Faster-feeding ropes may

improve the treatment of plants in dense stands.

Besides the flow resistance in the rope-wicks, the lack

of consistent success in some cases has been attributed

to hot temperatures and low humidity in the treatment

areas.

CONTROL OF VERTEBRATES

Fish -- Programs to control fish populations usually

are initiated for one of two reasons: (1) to remove

undesirable species or (2) to attempt to establish a

desirable balance of game fish. The control techniques

used include fishing regulations, mechanical control,

biological control, chemical control, and various

combinations of techniques. Control of fish is

regulated by federal and state laws; therefore, the Utah

Division of Wildlife Resources and U.S. Fish and

Wildlife Services should be contacted before control

programs are initiated.

Types of Problems -- The introduction of various

species of fish into new environments (such as,

common carp and grass carp) is an old practice. Quite

often, there is an adverse impact on the environment or

on more desirable native species already present.

Under such circumstances, the offending species

should be eliminated, or at least controlled.

Control is also desirable when one or more species

overpopulate an aquatic environment. Such over-

populations may outstrip their food supply, leading to

large numbers of small, stunted fish, or they may

interfere with the reproduction and survival of other

species. Where predator (game) fish populations are

not large enough to control panfish or forage fish

populations (such as, bullheads, perch, suckers and

sunfish), or if these fish are not harvested, they may

reproduce to the point of being overpopulated. In such

situations, control is essential to maintain desirable

population balance and to obtain optimum production

from the system.

TYPES OF CONTROL

Regulations -- The goals of fishing regulations

include limiting the total harvest of fish, protecting

spawning fish, and distributing the total catch among

more people. Techniques employed include size and

creel limits, restricted seasons, and fishing-gear

restrictions. If predator (game) fish are harvested in too

great numbers or at too small a size, panfish or forage

fish may overpopulate. Carefully planned and managed

regulations on the size and numbers of game fish that

can be harvested from a given body of water can

maintain more and larger predators, thus providing a

better-balanced fish population and also better fishing.

Environmental Manipulation -- Undesirable

species and unbalanced populations can be removed

from drainable ponds, lakes and reservoirs by simply

draining the body of water. After refilling, desirable

species can be stocked in appropriate numbers and

combinations. Water levels can be increased to provide

better spawning areas for predators such as northern

pike. Carp can sometimes be controlled by dropping

water levels rapidly after they have spawned in shallow

areas. A partial drawdown is sometimes used to force

small forage fish to leave the protection of shallow,

weedy areas and, thus, become vulnerable to predators.

Removal of the vegetation without a drawdown

sometimes produces a similar effect.

Mechanical Control -- Mechanical methods are

often effective in reducing the numbers of fish in

overcrowded situations. Mechanical barriers may also

be used to reduce the movement of undesirable species

into new environments or to control normal migrations.

Mechanical devices include seines, nets and traps, as

well as weirs and other barriers. Mechanical devices

have the advantage of selectivity, since desirable

species or size classes can be returned to the water,

while undesirable fish can be removed.

Mechanical devices are seldom effective in completely

eliminating undesirable species. Some individuals of

the undesirable species invariably escape mechanical

devices, grow and reproduce, thereby maintaining their

presence in the particular body of water. If complete

eradication rather than partial control is desired,

draining or chemical toxicants will be more effective.

Chemical Control – Un-drainable ponds and lakes

sometimes require the use of chemicals to kill all fish

present before restocking with desired species or

combinations of species. Chemicals may also be used

to eliminate fish from isolated pockets, backwater

areas, or inflowing streams where drainage is the

principal method of control.

A wide variety of chemicals have been used to control

fish populations. Insecticides that have been used

include copper sulfate, anhydrous ammonia, sodium

cyanide, cresol, sodium hydrozide, rotenone,

antimycin, squozin, Bayluscide (Bayer 73), and TFM

(3-trifluoromethyl- 4-nitrophenol). At present, only

antimycin, rotenone, Bayluscide and TFM are

registered for use as fish poisons, and Bayluscide and

TFM can be used only by federal or selected state

personnel. No chemical toxicants can be used if the

fish are to be used for human consumption. Rotenone

is normally the toxicant of choice when chemicals are

used to control fish populations.

When chemicals are used, it’s desirable to lower the

level of the pond or lake if at all possible. This will

reduce the volume of water to be treated and also the

possibility of an outflow of the toxicant into the

downstream area. As the pond or lake refills, the fish

toxicant will be diluted. The combination of dilution

and decomposition should make the toxicant harmless

by the time the pond or lake has filled. It should be

remembered, however, which water temperature and

quality influence the decomposition rate of the

chemicals used as fish toxicants, and that any

downstream fish-kills are the legal responsibility of

those who applied the chemical. If outflow can't be

controlled, chemical neutralization may be required.

Rotenone can be neutralized by potassium

permanganate.

The volume of water to be treated must be accurately

calculated. Procedures described in the section on

aquatic plant control may be used. If areas deeper than

25 feet are to be treated, it may be necessary to use a

weighted hose to pump the toxicant directly to the deep

area. The depth to which winds mix the surface waters

determines whether or not pumping to deep areas is

needed. In all cases, complete mixing of the toxicant

throughout the body of water is essential if a total kill

is to be accomplished.

In some situations involving overpopulations of forage

fish or panfish, it’s possible to treat selected areas only

and still accomplish sufficient control to establish a

desirable balance of forage fish and game fish. When

partial treatments are used, it’s important to start

application at the point farthest from shore and seal off

the area to be treated with a curtain of the fish toxicant.

For example, if a cove is to be treated, seal off the

mouth of the cove and then work toward shore. Escape

of fish into deeper, untreated water is minimized in this

way.

When liquid fish toxicants are used, the chemicals

must be diluted sufficiently to assure complete and

uniform coverage of the area. Various types of sprayers

can be used. Powdered toxicants are normally mixed

with water to form a paste, which is placed in a cloth

sack and towed behind a boat until even coverage is

achieved. Backpack sprayers can be used for liquids if

the treatment area is remote or inaccessible by boat. In

all cases, use only enough toxicant to kill the target

species. An overdose isn’t only inefficient and

uneconomical, but it may lead to unforeseen side

effects.

Other Vertebrates -- Rodents, including beaver,

nutria, muskrats and rats, are of the most concern.

They can structurally weaken earthen dikes, levees and

dams by burrowing. This can cause water loss or

flooding and increases the erosion of banks. They also

can increase suspended sediment in water, clog

culverts or water-pipe intakes with vegetation cut

during feeding or nest-building activities, and block

stream flow.

Non-chemical control methods include modifying or

controlling habitat, such as controlling weeds to reduce

cover and food supplies; installing dike protectors or

barriers; trapping; and shooting.

Chemical control methods include the use of

repellents, fumigants and baits.

ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECTS

Pesticides may affect aquatic life immediately, on a

long-term basis, or indirectly. As chemicals are

applied, they may be directly toxic to aquatic plants or

animals. By accumulating in the environment and

being passed up the food chain, pesticides may also be

important from an ecological and human-health

standpoint.

Pesticides are most effectively used when they act only

on the target pest and don’t affect non-target

organisms. Knowledge of the potential effect on plants,

fish, birds, insects, and other organisms in aquatic

environments is essential for safe and effective aquatic

pest control. In addition, a knowledge of the secondary

effects that can be caused by improper application,

incorrect formulations, and incorrect application rates

of pesticides is necessary.

Herbicides and pesticides have a direct effect on

aquatic life but don’t cause environmental

catastrophes, when they are used properly. However,

they may cause subtle changes and indirectly modify

an aquatic ecosystem. Indirect effects are just as

important as the direct effects in many cases.

Aquatic plants provide cover, protection, attachment

substrate and food for many aquatic animals. Plants

contribute to and affect the chemical and physical

nature of the aquatic ecosystem. Any reduction in

quantity and quality of aquatic plants would affect the

chemical and physical environment and thus the animal

community structure. These changes are indirect, in

that they don’t involve the pesticide itself by acute or

chronic toxicity, accumulation or irritation.

Fish, mammals, amphibians and reptiles living and

feeding in water may be directly affected by herbicides

and pesticides. Treatment of an aquatic ecosystem with

herbicides and pesticides won’t cause serious problems

to these animals if the pesticides are used at the

recommended rates and applied properly. When rates

higher than those recommended are used or the

pesticides are improperly applied, toxicity levels may

reach a point that can be harmful to vertebrates. Fish

killed by pesticides are not harmful to other forms of

wildlife.

Most herbicides and fish toxicants or pesticides are not

harmful to aquatic invertebrates when used at the

recommended dosages. When toxic effects are found,

they are usually short-lived. The high reproductive

potential of most invertebrates allow population levels

to return to normal relatively rapidly. However,

improper application rates, incorrect formulation, or

faulty application of herbicides or pesticides may

reduce invertebrate populations to extremely low levels

or eliminate them entirely.

The application of pesticides will also have a direct

effect on many animals, including man. Almost all

herbicides and pesticides used in aquatic resource

management will be a potential hazard to man for a

period of time. Treated water may be unsafe for

swimming or irrigation, and the fish may be unfit for

human consumption. Man's activities or use of water

must be restricted for the period of time when

dangerous conditions exist. This period of time is

printed on the pesticide label. Improper use of

herbicides and pesticides may cause serious problems.

If application rates higher than those recommended are

used, the danger from the chemical may exceed the

time limit printed on the label.

In general, herbicides and pesticides are not a

contamination problem in the environment, nor do they

accumulate in the food chain to any great degree, as do

some insecticides.

CHEMICAL CONTROL FAILURE

In some situations, a pesticide application won’t

control the target pest. Some common reasons for

pesticide failure are:

1. Not reading the label.

2. Misidentification of pest species.

3. Rate miscalculation.

4. Adverse weather -- rainstorms or high winds that

dilute the chemical.

5. Water conditions -- high turbidity, low water

temperature, and high alkalinity can chemically or

physically interfere with pesticide action.

6. Weed regrowth or appearance of new pest.

7. Improper timing of application.

8. Rapid water exchange, causing chemical dilution.

If used correctly in accordance with label

restrictions, aquatic pesticides pose little threat to

the environment or the public. However, these

materials may become toxic to humans, livestock,

and non-target organisms if applied at excessive

rates.

WORKER PROTECTION STANDARDS

The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency’s

Worker Protection Standard (WPS), as revised in

1992, must be complied with when pesticides are

used on agricultural establishments, including

farms, forests, nurseries, and greenhouses, for

the commercial or research production of

agricultural plants. The WPS requires employers

to provide agricultural workers and pesticide

handlers with protections against possible harm

from pesticides. Persons who must comply with

these instructions include owners or operators of

agricultural establishments and owners or

operators of commercial businesses that are hired

to apply pesticides on the agricultural

establishment or to perform crop-advising tasks

on such establishments. Family members who

work on an agricultural or commercial pesticide

establishment are considered employees in some

situations.

WPS requirements for employers include:

• Displaying information about pesticide

safety, emergency procedures, and recent

pesticide applications on agricultural sites.

• Training workers and handlers about

pesticide safety.

• Helping employees get medical assistance

in case of a pesticide related emergency.

• Providing decontamination sites to wash

pesticide residues off hands and body.

• Compliance with restricted entry intervals

(REI)– the time after a pesticide application

when workers may not enter the area.

• Notifying workers through posted and/or

oral warnings about areas where pesticide

applications are taking place and areas where

REI are in effect.

• Allowing only trained and equipped

workers to be present during a pesticide

application.

• Providing personal protective equipment

(PPE) for pesticide handlers and also for

workers who enter pesticide treated areas

before expiration of the REI.

• Protecting pesticide handlers by giving

them safety instructions about the correct use

of pesticide application equipment and PPE

and monitoring workers and handlers in

hazardous situations.

One of the provisions of the WPS is the

requirement that employers provide handlers and

workers with ample water, soap, and single use

towels for washing and decontamination from

pesticides and that emergency transportation be

made available in the event of a pesticide

poisoning or injury. The WPS also establishes

REI and the requirements for PPE. PPE

requirements are specified for all pesticides used

on farms and in forests, greenhouses, and

nurseries. Some pesticide products already

carried REI and PPE directions. This rule raised

the level of protection and requirements for all

pesticide products.

Other major provisions require that employers

inform workers and handlers about pesticide

hazards through safety training. Handlers must

have easy access to pesticide label safety

information and a listing of treatment sites must

be centrally located at the agricultural facility.

Handlers are prohibited from applying a

pesticide in a way that could expose workers or

other people.

References: The Worker Protection Standard

for Agricultural Pesticides–How to Comply:

What Employers Need to Know. Web site:

www.usda.gov/oce/oce/labor-

affairs/wpspage.htm

PROTECTING GROUNDWATER AND

ENDANGERED SPECIES

INTRODUCTION

Federal and state efforts to protect groundwater

and endangered species have resulted in special

requirements and restrictions for pesticide

handlers and applicators. Pesticides that are

incorrectly or accidentally released into the

environment can pose a threat to groundwater

and endangered species. Whether pesticides are

applied indoors or outdoors, in an urban area or

in a rural area, the endangered species and

groundwater must be protected and state and

federal agencies rigidly enforce this

requirement.

The need for special action by the pesticide

handler/applicator depends on site location.

Groundwater contamination is of special

concern in release sites where groundwater is

close to the surface or where the soil type or

the geology allows contaminants to reach

groundwater easily. In the case of endangered

species, special action is normally required in

locations where the species currently live or in

locations where species are being reintroduced.

The product labeling is the best source to

determine if pesticide use is subject to

groundwater or endangered species limitations.

The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency

(EPA) establishes the specific limitations or

instructions for pesticide users in locations

where groundwater or endangered species are

most at risk. These limitations and instructions

may be too detailed for inclusion in pesticide

labeling. In such cases the labeling will direct

the applicator or handler to another source for

instructions and restrictions. The legal

responsibility for following instructions that

are distributed separately is the same as it is for

instructions that appear on the pesticide

labeling.

PROTECTING

GROUNDWATER

Groundwater is water located beneath the

earth’s surface. Many people think that

groundwater occurs in vast underground lakes,

rivers, or streams. Usually, however, it is

located in rock and soil. It moves very slowly

through irregular spaces within otherwise solid

rock or seeps between particles of sand, clay,

and gravel. An exception is in limestone areas,

where groundwater may flow through large

underground channels or caverns. Surface

water may move several feet in a second or a

minute. Groundwater may move only a few

feet in a month or a year. If the groundwater is

capable of providing significant quantities of

water to a well or spring, it is called an aquifer.

Pesticide contamination of aquifers is very

troubling, because these are sources of

drinking, washing, and irrigation water.

Utah has implemented a comprehensive and

coordinated approach to protect groundwater

from pesticide contamination. Formulation of

the Utah Groundwater and Pesticide State

Management Plan is a cooperative effort

between federal, state, private agencies,

producers, and user groups. It provides a basis

for continuing future efforts to protect

groundwater from contamination whenever

possible. Furthermore, this plan provides

agencies with direction for management

policies, regulations, enforcement, and

implementation of groundwater strategies.

Utah recognizes that the responsible and wise

use of pesticides can have a positive economic

impact, yield a higher quality of life, enhance

outdoor activities, and give relief from

annoying pests. The EPA has authorized the

Utah Department of Agriculture and Food

(UDAF) to enforce the protection of

groundwater from pesticides.

The UDAF, in concert with cooperating

agencies and entities, demands strict

compliance with all pesticide labels, handling

procedures, and usage to protect groundwater

in the state.

Prevention of groundwater contamination is

important, because once the water is polluted,

it is very difficult and costly to correct the

damage and in some instances impossible. City

and urban areas contribute to pollution because

water runoff can contain pesticides. Shallow

aquifers or water tables are more susceptible to

contamination than deeper aquifers or water

tables. Sandy soils allow more pollution to

move than clay or organic soils, because clays

and organic matter adsorb many of the

contaminants. For more information about

what groundwater is and where it comes from,

read the study manual Applying Pesticides

Correctly: A Guide for Private and

Commercial Applicators.

The Federal Insecticide, Fungicide and

Rodenticide Act (FIFRA), as amended,

establish a policy for determining the

acceptability of a pesticide use or the

continuation of that use, according to a

risk/benefit assessment. As long as benefits

outweigh adverse effects, the EPA can

continue to register the pesticide. Although the

intent of a pesticide application is to apply the

pesticide to the target or pest, part of the

pesticide will fall on the area around the target

or pest. Rain or irrigation water then can pick

up the part that is not degraded or broken down

and carry it to the groundwater via leaching.

There are many factors that influence the

amount of pesticide contamination that can get

into groundwater. The major factors are the

soil type, soil moisture, persistence in soil,

placement of the pesticide, frequency of

application, pesticide concentration and

formulation, pesticide water solubility, and

precipitation. Each of these factors will

influence the amount of pesticide that can

penetrate the soil surface, leave the root zone,

and percolate into groundwater.

Although some pesticides may have a high

adsorption quality, when they are applied to

sandy soil, they may still migrate to the water

table because there are few clay particles or

little organic matter to bind them. The

management and use of pesticides is up to the

individual applicator and/or landowner as to

whether safe practices are used. Groundwater

is a very valuable resource and it must be

protected from pesticide contamination.

PROTECTING ENDANGERED SPECIES

The Federal Endangered Species Act lists the

three classifications as endangered, threatened,

and experimental. Endangered has the highest

level of protection. The phrase “endangered

species” is used when referring to these

classifications. This Act was passed by

Congress to protect certain plants and wildlife

that are in danger of becoming extinct. A

portion of this Act requires EPA to ensure that

these species are protected from pesticides.

EPA’s goal is to remove or reduce the threat to

endangered species that pesticides pose.

Achieving this goal is a portion of the larger

continuing effort to protect species at risk.

Normally these restrictions apply to the habitat

or range currently occupied by the species at

risk. Occasionally the restrictions apply where

endangered species are being reintroduced into

a habitat previously occupied.

Habitats are the areas of land, water, and air

space that an endangered species needs for

survival. Such areas include breeding sites,

sources of food, cover, and shelter, and the

surrounding territory that provides space for

normal population growth and behavior.

Utah’s endangered species plan is a

cooperative effort between federal, state,

private agencies, producers, and user groups.

This plan provides agency direction for

regulations, enforcement, management

policies, and implementation of threatened and

endangered species protection strategies.

EPA launched a major project known as

Endangered Species Labeling (ESL). The goal

is to remove or reduce the threat to endangered

species from pesticides. EPA has the

responsibility to protect wildlife and the

environment against hazards posed by

pesticides. The ESL program is administered

by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (FWS) in

the U.S. Department of Interior. The FWS

reports to EPA concerning endangered species.

EPA and FWS work cooperatively to ensure

that there is consistency in the pesticide

restriction information provided to agencies

and pesticide users.

The UDAF acts under the direction and

authority of EPA to carry out the ESL project

as it relates to the use of pesticides in Utah.

Utah’s web sites with maps designating the

habitat boundaries and listings of endangered

plants and wildlife is: www.utahcdc.usu.edu

CALIBRATION INFORMATION

Conversion:

Units

One acre = 43,560 square feet Example: ½ acre = 21,780

square feet

One mile = 5,280 feet Example: ¼ mile = 1320 feet

One gallon = 128 fluid ounces Example: ½ gallon = 64 fluid ounces

One quart = 2 pints = 4 cups = 32 fluid ounces Example: 2 quarts = 64 fluid ounces

One pint = 2 cups = 16 fluid ounces Example: ½ pint = 1 cup = 8 fluid ounces

One tablespoon = 3 teaspoons = 0.5 fluid ounces Example: 2 tablespoons = 1 fluid ounce

One pound = 16 ounces Example: ¼ pound = 4 ounces

One gallon = 231 cubic inches Example: 2 gallons = 462 cubic inches

Weights

1 ounce = 28.35 grams

16 ounces = 1 pound = 453.59 grams

1 gallon water = 8.34 pounds = 3.785 liters = 3.78 kilograms

Liquid Measures

1 fluid ounce = 2 tablespoons = 29.573 milliliters

16 fluid ounces = 1 pint = 0.473 liters

2 pints = 1 quart = 0.946 liters

8 pints = 4 quarts = 1 gallon = 3.785 liters

Lengths

1 foot = 30.48 centimeters

3 feet = 1 yard = 0.9144 meters

16 1/2 feet = 1 rod = 5.029 meters

5280 feet = 320 rods = 1 mile = 1.6 kilometers

Areas

1 square foot = 929.03 square centimeters

9 square feet = 1 square yard = 0.836 square meters

43560 square feet = 160 square rods = 1 acre = 0.405 hectares

Speeds

1.466 feet per second = 88 feet per minute = 1 mph = 1.6 kilometers per hour (kph)

Volumes

27 cubic feet = 1 cubic yard = 0.765 cubic meters

1 cubic foot = 7.5 gallons = 28.317 cubic decimeters

Area and Volume Calculations:

Area of Rectangular or Square Shapes

The area of a rectangle is found by multiplying the length (L) times the width (W).

(Length) x (Width) = Area

Example: (100 feet) x (40 feet) = 4000 square feet

Area of Circles

The area of a circle is the radius (radius = one-half the diameter), times the radius, times 3.14.

(Radius) x (radius) x (3.14) = Area

Example: (25 feet) x (25 feet) x (3.14) = 1962.5 square feet

Area of Triangular Shapes

To find the area of a triangle, multiply ½ times the width of the triangle’s base, times the height of the

triangle.

(½) x (base width) x (height) = Area

Example: (½) x (15 feet) x (10 feet) = 75 square feet

Area of Irregular Shapes

Irregularly shaped sites can often be reduced to a combination of rectangles, circles, and triangles.

Calculate the area of each shape and add the values together to obtain the total area.

Example: Calculate the area of the rectangle, triangle,

square and one-half of a circle.

Another method is to convert the site into a circle. From a center point, measure the distance to the edge

of the area in 10 or more increments. Average these measurements to find the radius, then calculate the

area using the formula for a circle.

Example: Approximate the area by calculating

the area of a similarly sized circle.

Volume of Cube and Box Shapes

The volume of a cube or box is found by multiplying the length, times the width, times the height.

(Length) x (Width) x (Height) = Volume

Example: (100 feet) x (50 feet) x (30 feet) = 150,000 cubic feet

Volume of Cylindrical Shapes

The volume of a cylinder is found by calculating the area of the round end (see formula for circle) and

multiplying this area times the length or height.

Example: (radius) x (radius) x (3.14) = Area of Circle

(Area of Circle) x (Length) = Volume of Cylinder

(2 feet) x (2 feet) x (3.14) x (6 feet) = 75.36 cubic feet

Sprayer Calibration Formulas:

To Calculate Travel Speed in Miles Per Hour

The travel speed of a sprayer is determined by measuring the time (seconds) required to travel a know

distance (such as 200 feet). Insert the values in the following formula to determine the miles per hour.

Distance in Feet x 60 = Miles Per Hour

Time in Seconds x 88

Example: (200 feet) x (60) = 12,000 = 4.55 mph

(30 seconds) x (88) 2640

To Calculate the Gallons Per Minute Applied During Broadcast Spraying

The application rate in gallons per minute (GPM) for each nozzle is calculated by multiplying the gallons

per acre (GPA), times the miles per hour (MPH), times the nozzle spacing in inches (W); then dividing

the answer by 5940. For small adjustments in GPM sprayed, operating pressure is changed. For large

adjustments in GPM sprayed, travel speed (miles per hour) is changed or nozzle size is changed.

GPA x MPH x W

= GPM

5940

Example: (12 GPA) x (4.5 MPH) x (24”)

= 1296 = 0.22 GPM

5940 5940

To Calculate the Gallons Per Minute Applied During Band Spraying

Broadcast spraying applies chemicals to the entire area. Band spraying reduces the amount of area and

chemicals sprayed per acre. To use the above formulas for band sprayer applications, use the band width

(measured in inches) rather than nozzle spacing for the “W” value.

Pesticide Mixing:

Terminology

The active ingredients of a pesticide are the chemicals in a formulation that control the target pests. The

formulation is the pesticide product as sold, usually a mixture of concentrated active ingredients and an

inert material. Restricted use pesticides are purchased in formulations requiring dilution prior to

application. Formulations are diluted with inert substances such as water. The percentage of active

ingredients in a pesticide formulation directly affects dilution and application rates. Given two

pesticides, A = 50% active ingredients, B = 100% active ingredients; twice as much pesticide A

formulation is required to equal pesticide B formulation.

To Determine the Total Amount of Pesticide Formulation Required Per Tank

To calculate the total amount of pesticide formulation needed per spray tank, multiply the recommended

dilution, ounces/pints/cups/teaspoons/tablespoons/etc. of pesticide per gallon of liquid, times the total

number of gallons to be mixed in the sprayer. A full or partial tank of pesticide spray may be mixed.

(Dilution Per Gallon) x (Number of Gallons Mixed) = Required Amount of Pesticide Formulation

Example: (3 ounces per gallon) x (75 gallons) = 225 ounces

Note: 1 gallon = 128 ounces; through unit conversion 225 ounces = 1.76 gallons

To Calculate the Amount of Pesticide Formulation Sprayed Per Acre

The calculate the total amount of pesticide formulation sprayed per acre is determined by multiplying the

quantity of formulation (ounces/pounds/pints/cups/teaspoons/tablespoons/etc.) mixed per gallon of water,

times the number of gallons sprayed per acre.

(Quantity of Formulation Per Gallon) x (Gallons Sprayed Per Acre) = Formulation Sprayed Per Acre

Example: (1/2 pound per gallon) x (12 gallons per acre) = 6 pounds per acre

To Calculate the Amount of Active Ingredients Sprayed Per Acre

The total amount of active ingredients (AI) applied per acre, multiply the amount (pounds, gallons,

ounces, etc) of pesticide formulation required per acre, times the percentage of active ingredients in the

formulation (100%, 75%, 50%, 25%, etc.), and divide the value by 100.

(Amount of Formulation Required Per Acre) x (Percentage of AI)

= Active Ingredients Per Acre

100

Example: (4 pounds formulation sprayed per acre) x (75% AI) = 3 pounds of AI sprayed per acre

100 Note: 75 % = 0.75

To Calculate the Gallons of Pesticide Mixture Sprayed Per Acre

The total amount of pesticide mixture sprayed per acre is determined by dividing the number of gallons

sprayed by the number of acres sprayed.

Gallons Sprayed

= Gallons Sprayed Per Acre

Acres Sprayed

Example: 200 Gallons Sprayed

= 20 gallons of pesticide mixture sprayed per acre

10 Acres Sprayed

For APPENDIX information

http://wildlife.utah.gov/invasivespecies/aisplan/